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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 

GIFT  OF 


Willian  Popj^er 


PHILOSOPHY 


AND 


PHILOSOPHICAL 


Authors  of  the 'Jews, 


A  HISTORICAL  SKETCH 

WITH  EXPLANATORY  NOTES, 


BY 

s.  3yLTj:]sric, 

Librarian  of  the  National  Library  at  Paris  (France).     Author  of 
many  Eminent  Scientific  Works. 

TRANSLATED   BY 

DR.    ISIDOR     KALISCH. 


B^i 


V 


CINCINNATI: 

Block  &  Co.'s  Printing  House, 
1881. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1881.  by 

BLOCH  &  CO., 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


b 


PREFACE 


f- 


My  principal  design  in  publishing  this  little  volume  is  to  give 
to  the  public  an  English  translation  of  a  higbljMearned  and  a 
very  interesting  sketch  of  the  Jewish  philosophy  as  it  appeared 
in  France  (Paris,  1849),  under  the  title,  "  La  Philosophic  Chez 
les  Juifs  par,"  S.  Munk,  Librarian  at  the  Parisian  Xational  Li- 
brar}',  etc.,  which  is  originally  contained  in  the  "  Dictionaire  des 
Sciences  Philosophiques."  It  was  translated  into  German,  with 
additional  notes,  by  Dr.  B.  Beer.  For  this  portion  of  philosophy 
discussed  in  the  book  is  still  generally  a  terra  incognita  to  many  ; 
yes,  it  is  like  a  cemetery,  where  there  are  a  few  epitaphs  of  some 
learned  Jews,  consisting  merely  of  their  names,  but  their  works, 
ideas  and  principles  are  buried  in  oblivion.  Therefore  Professor 
Dr.  Julius  Fuerst  very  correctly  remarks,  in  his  introduction  to 
his  German  translation  of  "Emunoth  Wedeoth,"  preface,  page 
vi. :  "  They  take  haughty  leaps  in  the  gradation  of  history  ;  al- 
though the  steps  are  not  wanting.  They  take  no  notice  of  the 
many  links  in  the  great  chain  of  philosophy  of  religion  which 
were  wrought  by  Jews  with  constant  effort  in  the  course  of  many 
centuries." 

But  the  reason  of  such  a  negligence  of  the  Jewish  philosophy, 
especially  of  the  Middle  Ages,  may  be,  because  the  works  of 
Jewish  literati  at  that  time  were  mostly  written  in  the  Arabian 
and  Hebrew  languages,  which  are  not  understood  by  laymen, 
and  which  can  be  read  even  by  professional  men  with  great 
difficulty.  In  the  work  before  us  the  great  Orientalist,  S.  Munk, 
sketched  in  a  masterly  manner  the  endeavors  and  researches 
made  by  Jewish  scholars  and  their  vast  movements  in  the  bat- 
talion of  thoughts  in  ancient  times  and  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
and  thus  supplied  the  desideratum  felt  by  every  liberal  and 
honest  lover  of  truth. 

May  this  new  book  be  kindly  received  in  the  dominions  of 
philosophy  and  religion,  is  the  sincere  wish  of  the  translator. 
Faxit  Deu8  ! 


9l7r 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH 


—  OF 


JEWISH  AUTHORS  OF  ANCIENT  TIMES 

And  the  Middle  Ages  in  the  Domain  of  Philosophy. 


To  KNOW  God  and  to  make  him  known  to  the  whole  world, 
was  the  mission  which  was  alloted  to  the  Jewish  people.  But 
they  were  led  to  the  knowledge  of  God  hy  suggestions  of  faith 
and  by  a  revelation  which  they  received  without  adding  to  it 
anything  themselves.  The  savans  and  prophets  of  the  ancient 
Hebrews,  appealing  to  the  heart  of  man,  to  its  moral  feeling  and 
to  the  imagination,  endeavored  to  cherish  and  promulgate  the 
belief  in  a  unique  Being,  the  Creator  of  all  things. 

The  Hebrews  did  not  try  to  penetrate  into  the  secret  of  the 
divine  Being.  The  existence  of  God,  the  spirituality  of  the  soul, 
the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil  are  not  the  results  of  a  series  of 
inferences. 

They  believed  in  God,  the  Creator,  who  revealed  himself  to 
their  ancestors,  and  his  existence  seemed  to  them  to  be  beyond 
the  arguments  of  human  reason.  Their  morality  flowed  natu- 
rally from  conviction  and  from  the  intrinsic  feeling  of  a  just 
and  good  God.     Therefore,  there  are  in  all  their  books  no  traces 


—  6  — 

of  metaphysical  speculations,  as  are  to  be  found  in  those  of  the 
Hindoos  and  Greeks. 

They  do  not  possess  a  philosophy  in  the  sense  of  the  word  as 
we  understand  it. 

Mosaism  in  its  theological  part  presents  to  us  neither  a  scien- 
tific theology  nor  a  philosophical  system,  but  merely  a  religious 
doctrine,  based  upon  revelation.  Many  points  of  this  doctrine, 
however,  although  they  are  couched  in  poetical  terms,  belong 
indisputably  to  the  province  of  philosophy,  and  we  perceive  in 
that  the  endeavor  of  human  thought  to  solve  certain  problems 
regarding  the  absolute  Being  in  revelation  to  man. 

The  existence  of  evil  in  a  world  which  owes  its  origin  to  a 
Being  that  is  the  Supreme  Goodness  awakened  especially  the 
reflection  of  the  Hebrew  savans. 

How  is  it  possible  to  admit  the  real  existence  of  evil  without 
prescribing  limits  to  that  Being  from  whom  no  evil  can  ema- 
nate? And  how  can  we  admit  such  limitations  without  de- 
nying the  unit}^  of  the  Absolute  Being  and  without  adopting  the 
doctrine  of  Dualism? 

The  evil,  says  the  Mosaic  doctrine,  has  no  real  existence.  It 
does  not  exist  in  the  creation  at  all ;  because,  as  the  creation 
proceeded  from  God,  there  can  not  be  any  place  for  the  evil. 

Thus  it  reads  at  the  close  of  every  period  of  creation  :  "  And 
God  saw  that  it  was  good." 

The  evil  made  its  appearance  in  the  world  just  when  intelli- 
gence came,  that  is,  at  the  same  moment  when  man,  an  intel- 
lectual, moral  being,  was  destined  to  grapple  with  matter.  It 
happened  then  that  a  collision  of  the  spiritual  with  the  material 
principle  took  place,  which  produced  the  evil;  because  man, 
endowed  with  moral  feeling  and  free  in  his  movements,  should 
endeavor  to  bring  all  his  actions  in  unison  with  the  supreme 
good ;  but  when  he  allows  matter  to  overpower  him,  the  evil  is 


engendered  by  himself.  This  doctrine  of  evil,  contained  in  the 
third  chapter  of  Genesis,  is  closely  connected  with  the  doctrine 
of  freedom  of  will,  one  of  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Mosaism. 

Man  possesses  an  absolute  freedom  in  using  his  faculties. 
Life  and  good,  and  death  and  evil  are  in  his  power  (Deuter. 
XXX.  15-19). 

It  is  important  to  let  this  doctrine  derive  its  efficacy  from 
this  passage. 

The  Jews  have  always  subordinated  to  it  the  manifold  philo- 
sophical doctrines  of  foreign  origin  which  they  adopted  at  dif- 
ferent periods. 

The  development  of  this  doctrine  in  its  relations  to  the  di- 
vine providence  and  to  the  will  of  God  as  the  only  cause  of 
creation,  was  always  considered  by  the  Jewish  sages  of  all 
times  one  of  the  most  important  subjects  of  reflection.  Mai- 
monides,  Moreh  Nebuchim,  1,  3,  ch.  xvii. 

The  literati  among  the  Hebrews  and  Mohammedans  contented 
themselves  with  the  cultivation  of  poetry  and  that  practical 
wisdom  which  the  Orientals  like  to  clothe  in  the  form  of 
parables,  proverbs  and  enigmas. 

The  religion  of  the  Hebrews  granted  no  room  for  real  philo- 
sophical speculations. 

In  the  councils  of  learned  men  important  philosophical  ques- 
tions were  sometimes  engendered,  but  they  were  treated  from  a 
religious  standpoint  and  in  a  poetical  form.  Thus,  for  instance, 
we  find  in  the  book  of  Job  an  assembly  of  wise  men  trying  to 
solve  the  problems  of  divine  Providence  and  of  human  destiny. 

After  a  long,  unsuccessful  explanation,  God  himself  appears 
in  a  thunder-storm,  and  accuses  man  of  the  audacity  in  desir- 
ing to  judge  the  mysterious  ways  of  Providence.  Man  can  only 
behold  the  works  of  creation  with  awe  and  astonishment,  when 
everything  in  nature  is  a  great  secret  to  him ;  how,  then,  could 


—  8  — 

he  judge  the  inscrutable  motives  of  the  divine  Providence,  and 
the  government  of  the  universe?  Man  is  not  able  to  know  the 
ways  of  the  infinite  Being.  He  shall  bow  down  before  the  Al- 
mighty and  be  resigned  to  his  will.  This  is  the  final  principle 
of  the  book  of  Job,  which  has  decidedly  a  purely  religious  ten- 
dency, and  allows  the  human  reason  too  little  power  to  favor 
the  philosophical  speculation. 

The  book  of  Ecclesiastes  arrived  nearly  at  the  same  conclu- 
sion, showing  traces  of  a  well-considered  skepticism,  presup- 
posing certain  efforts  of  the  intellect  whose  insufficiency  the 
author  has  perceived  and  alluded  to,  even  (Eccl.  xii.  12)  to  an 
exuberance  of  books,  wherein  the  human  spirit  endeavored  to 
solve  problems  which  are  beyond  its  power.  But  this  very  book, 
which  is  ascribed  to  Solomon,  shows  us  by  its  diction  and  ideas 
a  period  when  foreign  culture  was  already  exersising  an  influ- 
ence with  the  Hebrews.  It  was  indisputably  composed  after 
the  Babylonian  captivity,  and  therefore  the  spiritual  condition 
of  the  ancient  Hebrews  can  not  be  inferred  from  that  at  all. 
The  Babylonian  exile  and  all  the  events  that  followed  it  brought 
the  Jews  in  contact  with  the  Chaldeans  and  Persians,  who  did 
not  fail  to  exercise  a  certain  influence  upon  the  civilization  and 
even  upon  the  religious  views  of  the  Je\^  s.  The  influence  of  the 
tenets  which  are  contained  in  Zend-Avesta  we  perceive  already 
in  some  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  especially  in  Ezekiel,  Zach- 
ariah  and  Daniel. 

The  true  worshipers  of  Jehovah  did  not  manifest  that  abhor- 
rence to  the  religious  views  of  the  Persians  which  they  showed 
against  those  of  other  heathen  nations.  The  religion  of  the 
Zend-Avesta,  although  she  does  not  teach  an  absolute  mono- 
theism, is,  nevertheless,  just  as  hostile  to  idolatry  as  the  Jewish 
religion. 


—  9  — 

The  spirituality  of  the  Persian  religion  was  the  main  cause 
which  induced  the  Jews  in  their  relations  to  that  people  to  be 
less  reserved,  and  many  Persian  religious  views  were  adopted 
by  them  and  became  national  by  degrees. 

Parseeism,  however,  contains  too  little  of  the  speculative  ele- 
ments, that  it  could  of  itself  not  have  engendered  the  philo- 
sophical speculation  among  the  Jews. 

The  prevailing  character  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures  under  the 
Persian  King  and  during  the  period  of  the  Macedonian  govern- 
ment remained  essentially  the  same  after  as  it  was  before  the 
Babylonian  exile  ;  only  the  frequent  intercourse  with  the  Greeks 
and  the  influence  of  their  civilization  engendered  gradually 
among  the  Jews  a  relish  for  metaphysical  speculations. 

This  taste  was  preserved,  especially  among  the  Egyptian 
Jews,  from  a  necessity  to  extol  their  religion  before  the  eyes  of 
the  Greeks. 

They  improved  the  interpretations  of  their  Holy  Scriptures, 
represented  their  articles  of  faith,  laws  and  religious  ceremo- 
nies, clothed  with  sublime  aspects,  in  order  to  attain  the  respect 
of  the  people  among  whom  they  lived.  We  find  already,  in  the 
Greek  translation  of  the  Pentateuch  which  is  ascribed  to  "  Sev- 
enty," and  is  known  by  the  name  Septuaginta,  extending  up  to 
the  times  of  the  first  Ptolemies  (280-210  Before  the  Christian 
Era),  numerous  annotations  of  allegorical  interpretations,  and 
we  discover  therein  some  traces  of  that  Greek-Oriental  philoso- 
phy which  developed  itself  since  that  time  among  the  Alexan- 
drian Jews,  and  whose  principal  representative  for  us  is  Philo. 

This  philosophy  was  already  quite  cultivated  under  the  gov- 
ernment of  Ptolemy  Philometor,  as  it  can  be  easily  ascertained 
by  many  still  preserved  fragments  of  the  Jewish  philosopher, 
Aristobul. 


—  10  — 

The  Book  of  Wisdom,  the  time  of  the  composition  of  which 
is  also  uncertain,  but  which  is  undoubtedly  the  work  of  an  Al- 
exandrian Jew,  contains  distinct  traces  of  it. 

The  principal  doctrine  of  this  philosophy  can  be  summed  up 
as  follows  :  The  divine  Being  is  of  such  an  absolute  perfection, 
that  it  can  not  be  signified  by  any  attributes  which  can  be  per- 
ceived by  human  thoughts. 

It  is  an  abstract  Being,  without  any  manifestation.  The 
world  is  the  work  of  certain  intermediary  powers,  which  share 
the  divine  essence,  and  by  which  alone  God  makes  himself 
known,  shedding  innumerable  beams  in  every  direction.  By 
this  means  he  is  omnipresent  and  works  everywhere  without 
being  influenced  by  the  objects  which  emanate  from  him. 

We  perceive  in  the  developments  of  this  doctrine,  just  as  we 
find  it  in  the  works  of  Philo,  an  eclectical  philosophy,  the  ele- 
ments of  which  are  borrowed  from  the  pre-eminent  systems  of 
the  Greeks,  as  well  as  of  certain  Oriental  theories  as  they  pre- 
vailed at  that  time  among  Hindoo  philosophers,  the  historical 
derivation  of  which  is  still  not  sufficiently  known.  Although 
this  philosophy  is  really  fantastical  and  boldly  declares  that 
God  is  the  only  active  principle  in  the  world,  and  every  motion 
of  our  soul  is  affected  by  a  divine  impulse,  it  acknowledges 
nevertheless  the  human  freedom  to  be  unrestricted,  and  at  the 
risk  of  appearing  inconsequent,  it  is  induced  by  a  moral  and 
religious  interest  to  pay  homage  to  the  Jewish  principle  of  free 
will,  as  it  has  been  noticed  already.  The  Egyptian  Jews  under- 
stood how  to  give  a  peculiar  air  to  this  eclectical  philosophy, 
and  cultivated  it  with  such  a  success  that  they  sometimes 
looked  on  them  afterward  as  men  who  were  perfect,  original 
thinkers. 

This  was  pushed  so  far  that  they  regarded  Pythagoras,  Plato 
and  Aristotle  as  the  disciples  of  Jews. 


—  11  — 

The  fables  which  are  detailed  by  different  Jewish  authors 
concerning  the  relations  that  took  place  between  several  Greek 
philosophers  and  some  Jewish  sages  have  their  origin  in  the 
national  pride  of  some  rabbis,  but  are  very  old  and  were  propa- 
gated by  heathen  and  Christian  authors.  Josephus  (c.  Ap  I. 
1,  c.  22)  and  Eusebius  (Praep.  Evang.  I.  ix.  c.  3)  communicate 
a  passage  as  related  by  Clearchus,  a  disciple  of  Aristotle,  that 
Aristotle  made  the  acquaintance  of  a  Jew  in  Asia,  with  whom 
he  conversed  on  philosophical  subjects,  and  confessed  to  have 
learned  more  from  him  than  he  did  from  Aristotle.  According 
to  Numenius  of  Apamea,  Plato  was  nothing  else  than  an 
Attic-speaking  Moses. 

This  proves  that  the  manner  of  interpreting  the  Bible  intro- 
duced by  the  Egyptian  Jews  has  gained  great  authority.  After 
the  Battle  of  Ipsus  (301  Before  Christ)  Palestine  was,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  short  intervals,  under  the  government  of  the 
Kings  of  Egypt.  Therefore  frequent  intercourse  must  have 
taken  place  between  the  Jews  of  both  countries. 

Under  the  later  government  of  the  Syrian  Kings  the  relish 
for  Greek  civilization  and  habits  became  so  prevalent,  that  the 
Jewish  religion  was  exposed  to  the  greatest  dangers  until  finally 
the  tyranny  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  effected  an  energetic  re- 
action, produced  by  the  Maccabees. 

We  can  not  fail  to  recognize  the  influence  of  the  Greek 
dialectics  upon  the  schools  or  sects  which  we  find  in  their  per- 
fect development  under  the  Maccabean  princes. 

The  Jews  of  Palestine  divided  themselves  into  two  sects, 
namely,  Pharisees  and  Sadducees.  The  first  adopted  the  time- 
honored  religious  views,  doctrines  and  usages  and  endeavored 
thereby  to  ascribe  to  them  an  ancient  and  divine  origin,  claim- 
ing that  they  had  received  them  from  the  greatest  antiquity,  or 
at  least  that  they  received  even  from  Moses  himself  the  system 


—  12  — 

of  interpretation  upon  which  they  were  founded,  based  upon 
the  holy  texts. 

Although  it  can  not  be  denied  that  this  sect  sanctioned  many 
religious  views  and  usages  which  were  borrowed  from  the  Chal- 
deans and  Persians,  their  system  of  interpretation  had,  never- 
theless, the  advantage  of  giving  life  and  motion  to  the  dead 
letter,  of  favoring  progress  and  development  of  Judaism,  and  of 
opening  the  door  to  the  theological  and  philosophical  specula- 
tions among  intelligent  minds. 

The  Sadducees,  however,  who  refused  to  accept  the  oral  tra- 
dition, and  rejected  all  the  doctrines  which  are  not  explicitly 
mentioned  in  the  Bible,  deprived  Mosaism  on  account  of  that 
of  all  the  germs  of  development  contained  in  it. 

They  went  so  far  as  to  deny  the  immortality  of  the  soul  and 
the  interposition  of  the  divine  Providence  in  human  affairs  as 
incompatible  with  the  principle  of  the  freedom  of  will. 

A  society  of  men  was  organized  among  the  Pharisees,  which 
may  be  called  "  Practical  Philosophers,"  who  adopted  the  re- 
ligious principles  and  observances  of  Pharisaism,  but  endea- 
vored always  to  act  according  to  the  principles  of  a  rigid 
morality,  which  was  taught  by  Pharisees  but  not  strictly  per- 
formed by  them.  The  members  of  this  society  set  the  example 
to  practice  virtue.  A  laborious  life  and  the  greatest  frugality 
recommended  them  even  to  the  respects  of  the  common  people, 
who  could  only  judge  them  superficially.  They  were  called 
Essaer  or  Essenes,  probably  derived  from  the  Syrian  word 
Asja  (physician) ;  for  it  seems  that  they  formed  themselves 
upon  the  model  of  a  society  of  Egyptian  Jews  who  called  them- 
selves "  Therapeutse ;"  or,  according  to  the  explanation  of  Philo, 
"  Physicians  of  Souls."*  These  Therapeutae  lived  in  solitude 
and  devoted  themselves  to  abstinence  and  contemplation. 


*  See  my  Guide,  p.  77,  Note  23,  ed.  Cincinnati,  1857.— Translator. 


—  13  — 

Although  the  Essenes  of  Palestine  had  more  regard  to  prac- 
tice concerning  religious  matters,  as  well  as  social  life,  than  the 
Therapeuta\  they,  however,  displayed  like  them  a  decided 
proneness  to  an  ascetic  and  contemplative  life.'  This  is  here 
especially  of  importance  to  us,  because  we  consider  them  as 
the  first  preservers  of  a  half- mystical  and  a  half-philosophical 
doctrine,  which  developed  itself  among  the  Jews  of  Palestine  at 
the  time  of  the  origin  of  Christianit3^  We  know  from  Josephus 
(on  the  Jewish  War,  1,  2,  Chapter  viii. )  that  the  Essenes  laid 
great  importance  on  the  names  of  angels  and  had  special  doc- 
trines of  which  they  made  a  mystery,  not  allowing  them  to  be 
communicated  to  newly-initiated  members  of  their  society  until 
after  a  certain  time  of  probation.  According  to  Philo  (in  the 
treatise  entitled  "  Every  Virtuous  Person  is  Free  "),  the  Essenes 
held  in  contempt  the  logieal  part  of  philosophy,  and  studied 
only  that  of  the  physical  part,  which  treated  on  the  existence  of 
God  and  the  origin  of  the  world. 

Therefore,  they  had  tenets  of  philosophy  wherein  the  doc- 
trine of  angels  played  an  important  part,  besides  certain  meta- 
physical speculations.  It  is  very  probable  that  they  cultivated 
in  later  times  the  doctrine  which  is  known  by  the  name  Kabba- 
lah, which  was  drawn  from  different  sources  and  inspired  the 
first  founders  of  the  Gnosis  (sublime  wisdom).  The  influence 
which  the  Jewish  philosophers  had  on  the  New-Platonism  in 
Egypt  and  Palestine,  as  well  as  on  the  Gnosis,  placed  the  Jews 
in  the  rank  of  nations  who  participated  in  that  spiritual  move- 
ment which  endeavored  to  blend  the  Oriental  with  the  Occiden- 
tal ideas.  In  this  capacity  they  deserve  a  place  in  the  history 
of  philosophy. 

But,  although  a  certain  originality  nmst  be  admitted  to  the 
philosophy  of  the  Alexandrian  Jews  and  especially  to  the  Kab- 
balah, the  different  elements  of  these  two  doctrines,  especially 


—  14  — 

their  decided  pantheistical  tendency,  are  too  little  consonant  to 
Judaism  in  order  to  give  them  the  name  of  Jewish  philosophy. 
There  exists  not  a  Jewish  philosophy ;  but,  nevertheless,  the 
Jews  may  claim  the  merit  of  having  been  one  of  the  interme- 
diate members  through  whom  the  speculative  ideas  of  the 
Orient  were  transferred  to  the  Occident.  Later  on  we  will  ob- 
serve them  appear  again  in  the  same  part  of  mediation. 

The  first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  show  us  the  Jews  in  a 
situation  which  w'as  not  favorable  to  the  spiritual  progress.  At 
first  they  were  engaged  in  a  political  war,  which  terminated  in 
the  horrible  catastrophe  of  Jerusalem ;  later,  after  a  disastrous 
trial  of  Bar  Kochba,  when  the  teachers  who  escaped  the  ven- 
geance of  the  Romans  convinced  themselves  that  Jerusalem 
could  not  be  any  more  the  center  of  the  divine  service  and  the 
symbol  around  which  the  dispersed  remnants  of  the  Jewish 
nation  could  unite  themselves,  they  set  themselves  to  work  to 
devise  expedients  to  strengthen  the  bonds  by  which  the  Jews 
of  all  countries  were  enabled  to  be  preserved  as  a  religious  com- 
munit3^ 

The  religious  system  of  the  Pharisees,  to  which  the  majority 
of  the  Jews  were  attached,  did  not  suffice  to  preserve  the  Jews 
intact  through  the  influence  of  the  authority  of  the  Holy  Writ 
alone,  therefore  equal  power  was  also  ascribed  to  the  interpre- 
tations and  traditional  developments  that  were  hitherto  handed 
down  in  the  schools  by  oral  instruction  and  of  which  only  a 
few  compositions  are  now  extant,  containing  some  parts  which 
can  not  claim  the  honor  of  canonicity. 

During  the  first  quarter  of  the  third  century  there  appeared 
a  vast  collection  of  ancient  religious  laws,  usages  and  obser- 
vances of  the  Pharisaical  school  and  even  of  those  which  had 
ceased  to  be  applicable  after  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  at 
Jerusalem.     The  diflerent  parts  of  this  collection  known  by  the 


—  15  — 

name  Mishnah  (in  the  Novelles  of  Justinian,  deuterosis)  were 
during  three  hundred  years  supplied  with  notes  in  order  to 
discuss  them  exhaustively  in  all  their  bearings. 

They  busied  themselves  at  the  same  time  with  an  extensive 
critical  labor  to  establish  irrevocably  the  text  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, according  to  authentical  manuscripts,  and  went  so  far 
that  they  even  counted  all  the  letters  which  were  contained  in 
every  book. 

In  the  immense  collections  of  the  first  five  or  six  centuries  of 
che  Christian  era,  which  we  still  possess  in  the  Talmud  as  well 
as  in  the  allegorical  interpretations,  there  are  very  little  traces 
of  philosophical  speculations.  When  we  find  therein  reminis- 
cences of  the  Kabbalah,  which  occur  frequently,  they  concern 
only,  so  to  speak,  the  exoterical  part  or  the  doctrine  of  the 
angels.  The  existence  of  the  speculative  part  of  the  Kabbalah 
reveals  itself  to  us  in  those  books  in  mentioning  the  mysteries 
which  are  contained  in  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis,  "  Bereshith  " 
(history  of  creation),  and  in  the  Mercabah  (chariot)  in  the 
vision  of  Ezekiel.  The  Jews  remained  in  the  same  spiritual 
state  until  the  period  when  Mohammed  and  his  successors 
brought  about  in  Asia  an  immense  revolution,  and  the  spiritual 
monuments  of  the  Mussulman  world  reacted  powerfully  upon 
the  synagogue,  and  produced  in  its  bosom  struggles,  the  com- 
batants of  which  needed  quite  other  weapons  than  they  were 
wont  to  wield  in  the  Talmudical  schools,  and  were  now  pressed 
to  resolve  questions  of  canonical  rights,  as  well  as  of  cases  of 
conscience.  Under  the  government  of  Abu-Djaafar-Almansm-, 
second  caliph  of  the  Abassical  dynasty,  Anan  ben  David  (2) 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  Jewish  teachers  of  the  Babyloni- 
cal  academy,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  party  which  endeav- 
ored to  set  themselves  free  from  rabbinical  hierarchy,  and  to 
shake  off  the  yoke  of  traditional  laws.     Anan  promulgated  the 


—  16  — 

rights  of  reason  and  the  principle  of  free  inquiry.  As  he  ac- 
knowledged, however,  that  tradition  made  the  text  of  the  Scrip- 
tures clearer,  giving  to  Judaism  the  means  to  improve  by 
degrees,  he  did  not  reject,  like  the  old  Sadducees,  the  principle 
of  interpretation  and  every  kind  of  tradition,  but  wanted  to 
keep  both  in  perfect  unison  with  reason  and  the  text  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  contended  against  the  binding  authority  of 
many  laws  contained  in  the  Mishnah.  The  members  of  this 
sect  called  themselves  "  Karaim  "  (adherents  of  the  text),  and 
are  known  in  modern  times  by  the  name  of  "  Karaites "  or 
"  Karaer." 

We  will  not  discuss  in  this  connection  the  religious  principles 
of  Karaism,  but  we  will  only  show  its  influence  upon  the  philo- 
sophical speculations  among  the  Jews. 

Because,  although  it  is  true  that  the  Karaites,  having  no 
stable  principles,  and  having  acknowledged  no  other  authority 
than  the  individual  opinions  of  their  teachers,  lost  themselves 
in  a  labyrinth  of  contradictions  and  decisions  the  unraveling 
of  which  is  much  more  difficult  than  those  of  the  Talmudical 
discussions ;  yet  it  can  nevertheless  not  be  denied  that  Kara- 
ism, according  to  its  principles,  using  the  weapons  of  reason  to 
refute  rabbinism,  they  compelled  the  rabbis  to  take  up  the  same 
aims  in  their  defense. 

Moreover,  the  Karaites  were  only  qualified  to  establish  a 
sound  Biblical  exegesis  and  a  systematical  and  rational  theol- 
ogy, supported  by  philosophy.  Concerning  the  latter,  the  ex- 
ample of  the  Arabic  Motekallemin  had  undoubtedly  great 
influence  upon  the  Karaitical  teachers,  who,  according  to  their 
doctrine  and  schismatical  situation,  had  much  similarity  (3)  to 
the  Mussulmanic  sect  of  Motazalen,  the  founders  of  the  Knowl- 
edge of  Kalam, 


—  17  — 

The  Karaitical  theologians  themselves  adopted  the  name 
Motekallemin  (see  Kusari  i.,  v.,  §  15)  (4)  and  Maimonides 
(More  Nebuchim  i.  i.  c.  41)  says  explicitly  that  they  borrowed 
their  demonstrations  from  the  Mussulmanic  Motekallemin.  By 
such  demonstrations  they  affected  to  place  the  fundamental  doc- 
trines of  Judaism  upon  a  philosophical  basis. 

The  dialectics  of  Aristotle,  which  came  into  vogue  among  the 
Arabians  at  that  time,  gave  to  the  Mussulmanic  and  Jewish 
theologians  their  co-operation,  although  they  wrote  also  partly 
their  polemics  against  the  philosophical  dogmas  of  the  Stagirite. 

The  main  points  which  were  defended  in  the  books  of  the 
Karaitical  Motekallemin  were  as  follows  :  The  first  matter  is  not 
from  eternity ;  the  world  was  created  and  consequently  it  has  a 
Creator ;  this  Creator,  God,  has  neither  a  beginning  nor  an  end ; 
he  is  incorporeal,  and  no  f,  limited  within  the  boundaries  of  space; 
his  knowledge  comprehends  all  things,  his  life  consists  in  intel- 
ligence and  he  himself  is  pure  intelligence ;  he  acts  with  a  free 
will,  and  his  will  corresponds  to  his  omniscience  (see  Kusari, 
V.  18.) 

None  of  the  works  of  the  ancient  Karaitic  teachers  were  trans- 
mitted to  us.  The  only  evidence  that  we  have  that  their  works 
existed  are  the  quotations  from  them  which  are  occasionally 
found  in  later  books. 

One  of  the  most  renowned  Karaitic  Motekallemin  is  David 
ben  Merwan  al-Mokammes,  or  el-Mekammes  of  Rakka,  in  the 
Arabic  language  Irak,  who  flourished  in  the  ninth  century  (5). 
His  work  is  quoted  by  rabbinical  authors,  namely,  by  Bechaja 
and  Jedaja  Hapenini  (Bedresi) ;  but  it  seems  that  he  did  not 
know  that  this  author  was  a  Karaite  (6). 

By  this  it  appears  that  he  busied  himself  with  such  fundamen- 
tal doctrines  as  were  adopted  equally  by  both  sects,  and  that  his 
works  did  not  contain  any  polemics  against  the  Rabbinites. 


—  18  — 

He  maintains,  among  other  things,  as  we  are  informed  by 
Jephet  ben  Ali  (in  the  tenth  century),  that  man,  as  a  micro- 
cosm, is  the  most  perfect  creature  and  takes  a  rank  among 
angels  (7).  Whatever  his  theory  of  the  angels  may  have  been, 
this  proves,  however,  that  he  ascribed  to  man  pre-eminence  and 
great  power. 

The  Rabbinites,  or  the  adherents  of  the  Talmud,  followed  the 
example  set  by  the  Karaitic  teachers,  and  tried  to  support  their 
religious  edifice  with  arguments  which  they  drew  from  the  phi- 
losophy of  their  times. 

The  first  who  opened  this  new  path  successfully  and  whose 
religious  principles  gained  a  certain  authority  among  the  Jews, 
was  Sadias  ben  Joseph  al  Fajum,  renowned  as  exegete,  theolo- 
gian and  Talmudist,  and  at  the  same  time  a  formidable  antago- 
nist of  Karaism. 

He  was  born  at  Fajum,  in  Egypt,  in  892,  and  was  appointed 
Principal  of  the  Academy  at  Sora,  near  Bagdad,  which  was  at 
that  time  the  capital  seat  of  Rabbinism.  Having  lost  his  office 
by  the  intrigues  of  some  adversaries,  he  was,  after  a  few 
years,  reinstated,  and  died  at  Sora  in  the  year  942.  Among  his 
numerous  works,  the  only  book  which  concerns  us  is  entitled 
"  On  the  Doctrines  of  Faith  and  the  Different  Opinions,"  or 
"  On  Religion  and  Knowledge,"  which  was  composed  by  him  in 
the  Arabic  language  about  933,  and  was  translated  into  Hebrew 
by  Juda  Ibn  Tabon  in  the  twelfth  century,  in  which  language 
it  is  still  extant  in  different  editions.  It  was  lately  translated 
into  German  by  Dr.  Julius  Fuerst,  Leipsic,  1848.  Besides  the 
authority  of  the  Holy  Writ  and  tradition,  Sadias  acknowledges 
also  that  of  reason,  and  announces  not  only  the  right  but  also 
the  duty  to  investigate  the  religious  faith ;  because  it  must  be 
understood  thoroughly  on  account  of  its  own  safety  and  per- 
i  fection  against  assault  from  without. 


—  19  — 

Reason  teaches,  according  to  his  opinion,  the  same  truisms 
as  revelation ;  but  the  latter  was  nevertheless  necessary  to  at- 
tain quicker  to  the  highest  truisms,  which  reason,  when  left  to 
itself,  could  have  only  arrived  at  after  great  difficulties.  The 
subjects  of  which  he  treats  are  generally  those  which  are  men- 
tioned above  by  the  Karaites,  namely,  unity  of  God,  his  attri- 
butes, the  Creation,  revelation  of  the  Law,  nature  of  the  human 
soul,  etc. 

Some  doctrines  of  faith  of  the  second  order  which  correspond 
less  with  reason,  to-wit,  resurrection  of  the  dead,  are  adopted 
by  him;  but  he  contents  himself  to  prove  it  by  the  idea  that 
reason  is  not  positively  against  them  ;  on  the  contrary,  all  re- 
ligious views  which  were  popular  at  that  time,  and  which  have 
no  foundation  whatever  in  the  Holy  Writ — for  instance,  me- 
tempsychosis— were  rejected  and  declared  by  Sadias  as  absurd- 
ities (E.  v.,  Chap,  iii.,  Berlin  ed.) 

Sadias  denies  the  existence  of  Satan,  or  a  contradictory 
angel,  in  his  Commentary  of  Job,  and  shows  that  the  sons  of 
God  and  Satan  which  are  mentioned  in  the  prologue  are  men. 

That  was  a  bold  view  at  the  time  of  Sadias. 

The  polemics  take  up  a  great  deal  of  space  in  the  book  of 
"Faith  and  Knowledge,"  and  it  concerns  us  herein  that  it  ac- 
quaints us  with  the  opinions  which  prevailed  at  that  period 
in  the  domain  of  religion  and  philosophy.  Thus  we  are  in- 
formed that  Jewish  philosophers  like  the  Motekallemin  adopted 
the  doctrine  of  atoms,  which  they  considered  to  be  everlasting. 

Others,  who  could  not  resist  the  consequences  of  rationalism, 
denied  all  miracles  and  endeavored  to  explain  them  upon  nat- 
ural grounds. 

Philosophy,  however,  takes  in  its  true  sense  a  second  rank, 
according  to  Sadias'  opinion. 


—  20  — 

It  is  in  the  service  of  religion,  and  is  to  him  a  simple  tool  for 
defense  of  religious  doctrines  of  Judaism.  The  peripatetic  phi- 
losophy had  not  as  yet  made  a  great  advance  among  the  Arabs  ; 
it  first  began  spreading  and  establishing  itself  by  the  works  of 
Farabi. 

Sadias  touched  no  other  points  of  the  peripatetic  doctrine 
than  the  categories,  and  proved  at  large  that  they  are  not  ap- 
plicable to  God  (E.  v.,  II.  Chap,  viii.) 

His  theory  of  the  creation  of  matter  is  an  assault  upon  the 
philosophy  of  antiquity  generally. 

Among  the  Jewish  authors,  the  works  of  whom  w^ere  trans- 
mitted to  us,  Sadias  is  the  first  who  taught  systematically  the 
dogma  of  the  creation  out  of  nothing  (ex  nihilo),  which  was 
undoubtedly  laid  down  already  by  Karaitical  theologians.  He 
does  this  indirectly  by  refuting  all  systems  which  are  contrary 
to  this  dogma  (E.  V.  1,  Chap,  iv.)  and  maintained  that  the  sole 
will  of  God  was  active  at  the  creation.  Furthermore,  the  doc- 
trine of  free  will,  based  upon  the  evidence  of  the  senses,  reason. 
Holy  Writ  and  tradition,  was  developed  by  Sadias  in  minute 
details  (E.  V,  4,  Chaps,  ii.  and  iii.).  It  would  be  useless  to 
follow  Sadias  in  his  demonstrations,  as  they  strike  us  very  sel- 
dom by  their  novelty,  and,  besides,  they  concern  more  the  theo- 
logian than  the  philosopher.  Sadias'  great  merit  (consisted  in 
having  shown  to  his  contemporaries  that  religion,  far  from 
fearing  the  light  of  reason,  finds  in  it,  on  the  contrary,  a 
strong  support.  By  this  method  he  paved  the  way  for  the 
introduction  of  true  philosophical  studies  among  his  co-religion- 
ists, and  the  brilliant  epoch  of  the  Spanish  and  Provenzal  Jews. 
Shortly  after  the  death  of  Sadias,  the  propagation  of  the  philo- 
sophical writings  of  the  eastern  Arabians  began  in  Spain.  At 
the  same  time  the  Spanish  Jews  liberated  themselves  from  the 
ecclesiastical  authority  of  the  Babylonian  A^caderay  at  Sora, 


—  21  — 

A  fortunate  coincidence  of  circumstances  put  them  in  a  posi- 
tion to  establish  a  new  school  at  Cordua  and  to  find  learned 
men  to  take  an  active  part  in  its  management  (8)  and  to  pro- 
cure all  literary  apparatus  which  they  were  in  need  of,  but 
which  were  in  abundance  among  the  Oriental  Jews. 

A  learned  Jewish  physician,  Chasdai  ben  Isaac  ben  Shaph- 
ruth,  who  was  appointed  physician  at  Court  in  Cordua  by 
Abdal-Rahman  III.  and  his  son,  Al  Hakem  II.,  exerted  the 
great  influence  which  he  enjoyed  to  enrich  the  Spanish  schools 
with  all  the  works  of  Oriental  Jews  (9). 

It  is  usually  thought  that  the  Mussulmanic  philosophers  in 
Spain  were  the  teachers  of  philosophy  of  the  Spanish  Jews  ;  but 
this  opinion  is  only  true  concerning  Maimonides  and  his  fol- 
lowers in  Christian  Spain. 

It  is  certain,  however,  that  the  Spanish  Jews  had  already 
treated  philosophy  successfully,  before  this  knowledge  found 
among  the  Mussulmans  a  worthy  representative. 

Ibn  Badja,  or  Ibn  Badshe,  who  died  very  young,  in  the  year 
1138,  was  the  first  Spanish  Arabian  who  studied  profoundly 
Aristotle's  philosophy. 

But  we  find  in  the  second  part  of  the  eleventh  century  a 
very  remarkable  philosopher  in  Spain,  whose  main  work,  which 
was  afterward  rendered  into  Latin,  created  great  sensation 
among  the  Christian  theologians  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

We  mean  here  him  whom  Thomas  of  Aquino,  Albert  the 
Great  and  others  quoted  by  the  name  Avicebron,  who  is  no 
other  than  he  who  is  renowned  among  the  Jews  as  a  religious 
poet  and  philosopher  by  the  name  of  Solomon  ben  Gabirol,  of 
Malaga. 

When  we  compare  the  quotations  which  were  made  by  Albert 
and  Thomas  of  Aquino  from  the  book  Fons  Vitae  (Fountain  of 
Life),  by  Avicebron,  with  the  extracts  from  the  book  Mekor 


—  22  — 

Chajim,  by  Solomon  ben  Gabirol,  which  is  still  extant  in  a  He- 
brew manuscript  at  the  Parisian  National  Library,  then  the 
identity  of  both  works  being  the  offspring  of  the  same  author 
is  proven  by  the  strongest  evidence  (10). 

Avicebron  or  Ibn  Gabirol  shows  himself  at  once  to  have  been 
initiated  into  the  peripatetic  philosophy.  He  distinguishes 
"  matter  and  form  "  in  all  that  exists,  the  connection  of  which 
is  effected  by  motion,  but  he  defines  more  accurately  the  ideas 
of  matter  and  form  than  all  Arabian  peripatetics. 

Matter,  he  says,  is  a  simple  capability  to  be,  while  it  takes 
the  form  ;  the  latter  (the  form)  bounds  the  capability  of  being, 
making  matter  to  be  a  certain  expressed  substance. 

Besides  God,  who  is  a  necessary  and  absolute  Being,  does 
not  admit  any  substratum  of  possibility,  every  being  is  spirit- 
ual or  material,  composed  of  matter  and  form. 

Avicebron  first  laid  down  this  principle  in  an  absolute  sense, 
that  matter  be  ascribed  to  the  soul,  as  Thomas  of  Aquino  said : 
"  Quidam  dicunt  quod  anima  et  omnino  substantia  praeter  deum  est 
composita  ex  materia  et  forma.  Cujus  quidem  positionis  primus  auc- 
tor  invenitur  Avicebron  auctor  libri  fontis  vitae  "—that  is,  some  say 
that  the  soul  and  every  substance  besides  God  is  composed  of 
matter  and  form.  This  dogma  was  first  laid  down  by  Avicebron, 
author  of  the  book  "  Fountain  of  Life,"  quaestiones  disputatae, 
quaest  de  anima  (Art.  vi.,  ed.  Lugd,  p.  153a.  See  also  Albertus, 
"  De  causis  et  proc.  univ.,"  1. 1  tract  1,  Chap,  v.) 

When  Avicebron  spiritualizes  matter,  on  one  side  ascribing 
it  to  all  spiritual  substances,  he  gives  on  the  other  side,  in  a 
certain  measure,  a  corporeity  to  the  form,  as  he  considers  it  as 
that  by  which  matter  is  limited  in  always  narrower  boundaries 
from  the  form  of  substance  unto  its  exact  materiality.  In  the 
book  "  Fons  Vitae  "  he  expresses  himself  about  it  as  follows  :  I 
will  give  you  a  rule  by  which  you  may  gain  a  knowledge  of 


-23  — 

forms  and  matters.  You  may  imagine  all  classes  of  beings  (in 
circles)  one  above  the  other,  one  comprising  the  other,  one  car- 
r^'ing  the  other,  inclosed  by  two  boundary  lines,  one  above  and 
one  below. 

All  that  is  of  these  (beings)  on  the  upper  boundary  line,  sur- 
rounding all  as  general  matter,  is  only  a  carrying  matter  (sim- 
ple substratum) ;  all  which  is  on  the  lower  boundary  line,  as 
the  sensual  form,  is  merely  sensual  form.  Of  that  which  is  in 
the  midst  between  the  two  boundary  lines,  the  finer  and  higher 
becomes  matter  of  the  lower  and  coarser,  the  latter  serves  the 
first  for  a  form. 

It  follows  from  this  that  the  materiality  of  the  world,  which 
shows  itself  as  matter  carrying  a  form,  of  which  it  is  carried 
itself,  is  a  form  in  itself  which  is  carried  by  an  inside  abstract 
matter  of  which  we  just  now  speak.  In  this  way  this  matter 
becomes  again  the  form  of  its  following,  until  this  returns  to 
the  first  all  comprising  matter.  The  substance  of  this  place  is 
also  communicated  by  Aquino,  "  Quaest.  de  Spiritualibus  Crea- 
turis,"  art.  III.  p.  1388. 

The  motion  which  combines  matter  with  form  has  its  origin 
from  the  will  of  the  Creator,  and  not  from  his  intellect,  because 
only  the  latter  could  produce  the  infinite. 

Matter  receives  from  the  will  as  much  as  was  assigned  of 
it  to  its  susceptibility,  but  not  according  to  the  power  of  the 
will,  because  that  which  matter  received  from  the  light  of  the 
will  is  small  in  comparison  to  that  which  the  will  is  able  to 
create  (Mekor  Chajim  I.  V.) 

This  intermeddling  of  the  will  is  a  concession  made  to  the 
religious  demands  by  which  Avicebron  paid  a  faithful  homage 
to  the  dogma  of  Creation  announced  by  Judaism.  Notwith- 
standing that,  the  independent  course  which  he  pursued  in  his 
philosophy  could  not  please  the  Jewish  theologians  of  that  pe- 


—  24  — 

riod.  But  later,  when  the  peripatetic  doctrine  of  the  Arabians 
became  prevalent  in  the  Jewish  schools,  the  doctrines  of 
Avicebron  were  considered  in  regard  to  pliilosophy  as  heresies. 
Therefore,  while  the  religious  poems  of  Ibn  Gabirol  were  very 
celebrated  among  the  Jews,  and  were  even  adopted  in  the  rituals 
of  the  synagogues,  his  book,  entitled  "  Fountain  of  Life,"  was 
abandoned  to  utter  oblivion. 

A  single  Jewish  author,  Shem  tob  ben  Palkeira,  a  distin- 
guished philosopher  of  the  second  half  of  the  Thirteenth  Cen- 
tury, appreciated  the  philosophical  work  of  Ibn  Gabirol,  which 
he  quotes  frequently,  and  from  which  he  made  copious  extracts, 
translating  them  from  the  Arabic  into  the  Hebrew  language. 

Ibn  Gabirol  could  not  exert  any  influence  upon  the  Arabian 
philosophers  in  Spain.  The  Mussulmans  did  not  read  the  works 
of  the  Jews. 

Ibn  Badja  and  Ibn  Roshd  were  scarcely  acquainted  with  the 
name  of  Ibn  Gabirol,  but  he  became  renowned  among  the  scho- 
lastics of  the  Thirteenth  Century  under  the  falsified  name  of 
Avicebron,  by  a  Latin  translation,  "  Fons  Vitae,"  for  which,  ac- 
cording to  Jourdain,  we  have  to  be  thankful  to  the  Archdeacon 
Gundisalvi  (see  "  Recherches  sur  les  traduct.  d'Aristotc,"  2d 
ed.  p.  119.) 

His  influence  upon  certain  scholastics  is  a  fact  acknowledged 
by  some  modern  authors ;  but  they  still  fail  to  enlighten  us 
sufficiently  on  the  subject. 

Ibn  Gabirol  is  by  originality  and  boldness  of  thought  an  iso- 
lated appearance  among  the  Spanish  Jews,  but,  as  we  are  in- 
formed by  Maimonides,  who  was  himself  a  Spaniard,  his 
Jewish  countrymen  rejected  generally  both  the  system  and 
the  method  of  the  Motekallemin,  and  zealousl}'^  adopted  the 
opinions  of  the  properly  so  called  philosophers  or  peripa- 
tetics, in  so  far  as  they  were  directly  in  contradiction  with  the 


—  25  — 

fundamental  doctrines  of  Judaism  (Moreh  Nebuchim  l,p.  l,ch. 
Ixxi.)  The  theologians  perceived  the  dangers  by  which  Judaism 
was  menaced  through  the  encroachments  of  the  philosophers. 

Bechai,  or  Baehja  ben  Joseph,  about  the  end  of  the  eleventh 
century,  was  the  first  who  endeavored  to  represent  completely 
and  systematically  the  morality  of  Judaism,  in  his  book,  en- 
titled:  "The  Duties  of  the  Heart"  (Choboth  Halbaboth). 

He  begins  with  a  treatise  on  the  unity  of  God,  wherein  he 
shows  evidently  a  predilection  for  Sadias'  method,  although  he 
reveals  that  he  had  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  difference  of  the 
peripatetic  systems. 

The  superiority  which  he  assigns  to  the  practical  morality 
above  speculation,  and  his  decided  direction  toward  an  ascetical 
manner  of  life,  give  him  a  certain  resemblance  to  his  contem- 
porary, Gazali.  (12) 

A  stronger  reaction  is  manifest  in  the  l)ook  "  Cosri,"  or,  more 
properly,  "Cusari,"  composed  by  the  renowned  poet,  Judah 
Halevi,  in  the  year  1140. 

This  author  made  use  of  the  historical  fact,  that  a  king  of 
the  Kosars  or  Chasars,  together  with  a  great  portion  of  his 
people, (13)  embraced  Judaism  in  the  second  half  of  the  eighth 
century,  in  order  to  give  to  his  book  the  form  of  a  dialogue 
between  a  Jewish  savan  and  the  king  of  the  Chasars. 

The  latter,  who  dreamed  that  his  motives,  but  not  his  deeds, 
were  agreeable  to  God,  conferred  alternately  with  a  philosopher 
a  Christian  and  a  Mussulmanic  theologian ;  but  as  none  of 
these  three  were  able  to  convince  the  king,  he  sent  for  a  Jewish 
savan,  who  understood  at  once  how  to  captivate  the  reason  of 
the  king,  and  returned  an  answer  with  sucli  precision  to  every 
question  that  was  put  to  him,  that  the  king  became  perfectly 
satisfied,  and  finally  embraced  Judaism. 


—  26  — 

According  to  this  sketch,  Juda  Halevi  composed  his  book 
which  contains  the  complete  theory  of  the  Rabbinical  Judaism, 
and  wherein  he  opened  a  regular  campaign  against  philoso- 
phy. (14)  He  combats  the  error  of  those  who  think  to  suffice  the 
demands  of  religion,  when  they  endeavor  to  prove  that  reason, 
being  left  to  itself,  would  gain,  by  its  own  study,  the  superior 
truism  which  we  received  by  a  supernatural  revelation. 

The  revealed  religion  does  not  teach  us  anything  that  is 
directly  against  reason ;  but  that  we  are  able  only  through  faith 
and  a  life  consecrated  to  devotion  and  religious  exercises  to 
participate  in  prophetical  inspiration  and  to  be  pervaded  by 
the  revealed  truisms. 

Reason  can  give  us,  indeed,  arguments  for  the  eternity  of 
matter,  for  the  creation  of  the  world  out  of  nothing ;  but  that 
tradition,  Avhich  was  handed  down  from  the  most  ancient  times, 
and  was  propagated  from  one  century  to  another,  carried  \^ith 
it  more  power  of  conviction  than  any  ingenious  system  of 
syllogisms  and  demonstrations  that  can  be  impugned  very 
easily  by  other  refuting  arguments.  The  exercises  which  the 
religion  prescribes  have  a  profound  sense  and  are  symbols  of 
sublime  truisms. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  give  a  full  representation  of  the 
doctrines  of  Juda  Halevi ;  but  I  will  only  remark  that  his 
extravagant  ideas  led  him  to  the  mysticism  of  the  Kabbala. 
He  considered  the  latter  as  part  of  tradition  and  ascribed  to  it 
great  antiquity,  so  that  he  traced  back  the  Sefer  Yezirah  even 
to  the  earliest  times,  and  ascribed  it  to  the  patriarch  Abraham. 

The  book,  "  Cusari,"  contributed,  perhaps,  to  the  revival  of 
the  study  of  the  Kabbalah,  which  we  find  at  once  in  a  flourishing 
condition  a  century  later. 

Judah  Halevi's  endeavors  were,  indeed,  not  powerful  enough 
to  give  a  decisive  blow  to  the  study  of  philosophy,  which  had 


—  27  — 

taken  a  new  flight  at  that  time  through  the  works  of  Ibn  Badja; 
but  the  movement  of  the  reaction,  the  organ  of  which  was  the 
"  Cusri,"  occasioned  a  great  ferment.  A  certain  uneasiness  and 
insecurity  of  the  most  distinguished  and  independent  minds 
reflect  as  from  a  mirror  the  Biblical  commentaries  of  the  re- 
nowned Abraham  Ibn  Ezra,  wherein  we  find  a  strange  medley 
of  rational  criticism  and  childish  ideas  borrowed  from  the  Kab- 
bala,  sound  thoughts  worthy  of  a  philosopher  and  astrological 
superstition. (15)  But  in  order,  if  possible,  to  bring  about  a 
reconciliation  between  Judaism  and  philosophy,  a  mind  was 
necessary  which  could  control  both  and  combine  tranquillity 
and  clearness,  energy  and  depth,  a  man  who  was  enabled,  by  an 
imposing  knowledge  and  a  piercing  criticism,  to  illumine  with 
the  touch  of  knowledge  the  whole  domain  of  religion,  and  to  fix 
the  boundaries  of  speculation  and  faith  with  precision. 

The  great  man  who  took  upon  himself  this  task  was  Moses, 
son  of  Maimon,  usually  called  Maimonides,  born  at  Cordua, 
on  the  thirteenth  of  March,  1135,  and  died  at  Old  Kairo,  on  the 
thirteenth  of  December,  1204. 

Possessing  a  profound  knowledge  of  the  extensive  religious 
literature  of  the  Jews,  he  was  at  the  same  time  very  familiar 
with  all  profane  sciences  which  were  then  accessible  to  the 
Arabian  world. 

He  was  the  first  who  put  in  systematical  order  the  shapeless 
and  gigantic  masses  of  Talmudical  compilations,  erected  the 
religious  edifice  of  Judaism  upon  a  strong  foundation  and  fixed 
the  number  of  fundamental  articles  of  faith,  thus  presenting  a 
means  to  appropriate  to  one's  self  the  whole  of  the  system  of 
religion ;  he  effected,  although  not  a  full  reconciliation,  neverthe- 
less, at  last  an  approximation  between  philosophy  and  religion, 
and  acknowledging  the  rights  of  both,  and  thereby  secured 
for  them  mutual  control  and  support. 


—  28  — 

The  question  as  to  what  extent  the  endeavor  of  Maimonides 
was  of  advantage  to  the  development  of  the  Jewish  theology, 
is  foreign  to  the  subject  under  consideration  ;  but  in  reference  to 
philosophy,  his  "  Moreh "  or  ''  Guide  of  the  Strays,"  although 
it  did  not  distinctly  produce  results  which  made  an  epoch  in 
the  history  of  philosophy,  contributed  considerably  to  an  always 
larger  propagation  of  the  study  of  the  peripatetic  philosophy 
among  the  Jews,  and  made  the  latter  as  mediators  between 
the  Arabians  and  Christian  Europe,  and  exercised  an  incon- 
testable influence  upon  the  scholastic  lore.  Within  the  syna- 
gogue the  "  Moreh "  or  "  Guide "  had  results  which  outlived 
the  dominion  of  the  peripatetic  doctrine,  and  its  influence  is 
still  perceptible  nowadays. 

By  the  study  of  the  "Moreh,"  the  greatest  geniuses  among 
the  modern  Jews — Spinoza,  Mendelssohn,  Solomon,  Maimon  and 
many  others — were  introduced  into  the  sanctuary  of  philosophy. 

The  authority  of  this  book  became  so  significant  that  even 
the  Kabbalists  could  not  avoid  it. 

The  Kabbalah  endeavored  to  put  itself  in  conformit}'  with  the 
peripatetic  doctrine  of  the  Arabians,  and  many  master  spirits 
of  mysticism  went  so  far  as  to  find  in  the  "  Moreh  "  an  esoteric 
sense,  which  corresponded  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Kabbalah.(16) 
The  "  Moreh "  is  the  last  phase  of  development  of  the  philo- 
sophical studies  among  the  Jews  as  a  religious  association. 

It  remains  still  for  me  to  report  the  excellent  works  that  were 
produced  under  the  influence  of  the  direction  which  the  works 
of  Maimonides  gave  to  the  studies  of  the  Jews. 

Christian  Spain  and  Provence  granted,  to  a  great  portion  of 
Jews,  who  were  exiled  by  the  fanaticism  of  the  Almohades 
from  Southern  Spain,  a  place  of  refuge. 

Maimonides  was  also  compelled  to  emigrate,  and  he  went  to 
Egypt.    It  is  well  known  with  what  violent  passion  the  kings 


—  29  — 

of  that  dynasty  persecuted  the  pliilosophers  and  destroyed  their 
works. 

Ibn  Roshed  (usually  called  Aben  Rashid),  who  wrote  his 
commentaries  of  the  writings  of  Aristotle  at  the  same  time  when 
Maimonides  was  engaged  in  Egypt  composing  his  work,  "  Guide 
of  the  Strays,"'  would  have  remained,  perhaps,  unknown  to  the 
Christian  world,  had  not  the  Jews  of  Spain  and  Provence 
received  his  works  with  great  admiration,  to  whom,  also,  Mai- 
monides gives  great  praise,  in  a  splendid  manner,  in  his  letters 
which  he  wrote  in  the  last  years  of  his  life.  The  works  of  Ibn 
Roshed  and  of  other  Arabian  philosophers,  as  well  as  the  most 
scientific  writings  composed  in  the  Arabic  language,  were  trans- 
lated into  Latin  according  to  the  Arabic  texts  or  according  to 
very  faithful  Hebrew  translations,  either  by  learned  Jews  or 
under  their  dictation. 

The  interest  which  the  Christian  world  took  in  those  Hebrew 
translations,  for  which  Latin  translators  could  more  easily  be 
found  than  for  tho?e  of  the  original  Arabic  writings,  is  evident 
from  the  fact  that  the  Jewish  translators  were  proteges  of  men 
of  the  highest  rank  in  Christendom,  among  others,  also,  the 
Emperor  Frederic  II.  (17) 

But  the  more  philosophy  endeavored  to  spread,  under  the 
patronage  of  the  name  of  Maimonides,  the  greater  were  the 
exertions  made  by  its  antagonists,  who  were  terrified  by  its 
boldness  to  oppose  its  encroachments. 

They  did  not  respond  any  more  quietly  with  arguments 
founded  on  reason  as  did  the  pious  Juda  Halevi. 

Nobody  would  have  been  able  to  struggle  with  success  against 
Maimonides,  and  then  the  parties  were  too  distinctly  stamped 
to  be  satisfied  with  a  mere  war  of  words. 

The  philosophers  understood  to  win  the  undecided  spirits, 
who  could  not  comprehend  the  consequences  of  the  agitation, 


—  30  — 

and  suffered  themselves  to  be  hurried  away  by  the  awe  and 
confidence  the  name  of  Maimonides  infused  into  their  minds. 

The  antagonists  of  philosophy  were  greatly  foreign  to  such 
studies  and  acknowledged  the  grossest  views  concerning  the 
anthropomorphisms  of  the  Bible. 

In  the  Provence  the  "  Guide  of  the  Strays,"  by  Maimonides, 
was  translated  into  Hebrew  by  Samuel  ben  Tibbon  of  Lunel. 
The  conclusion  of  this  translation  happened  just  at  the  time 
when  Maimonides  died.  All  translators  and  commentators  of 
the  Arabic  philosophers  were  from  the  Provence,  as,  for  instance, 
Jacob  ben  Abba  Mari  ben  Antoli,  (18)  Moses  Samuel,  Samuel 
Ibn  Tibon,  and  later,  during  the  fourteenth  century,  Levi  ben 
Gerson,  Kalonimos  ben  Kalonimos,  (19)  Todros  Todrosi,  (20) 
Moses  of  Narbonne  and  others ;  and  from  this  land  the  tocsin 
of  alarm  was  sounded  from  south  to  north  and  from  the  Occi- 
dent to  the  orient. 

They  accused  each  other  of  heresy,  and  one  party  anathe- 
matized the  other. 

To  describe  the  details  of  warfare,  which  was  allayed  many 
times,  and  then  was  again  renewed  with  greater  or  lesser  violence 
until  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  would  exceed  the  object 
of  this  sketch ;  we,  therefore,  refer  the  reader  who  desires  to 
gather  a  thorough  information  about  it  to  the  excellent  essay  of 
Dr.  Geiger,  in  his  periodical  for  Jewish  theology  (Vol.  V.,  p.  82). 

It  suffices  that  this  warfare  took  a  turn  giving  advantage 
to  philosophy,  which  received  an  advance  even  by  the  exaspera- 
tion of  its  adversaries.  In  the  year  1305,  a  synod  of  Rabbis, 
at  the  head  of  which  was  the  renowned  Solomon  ben  Adereth 
(chief  of  the  synagogue  of  Barcelona),  forbade,  under  penalty 
of  excommunication,  any  person  to  begin  the  study  of  phi- 
losophy before  he  attained  the  age  of  twenty-five  years ;  but, 
nevertheless,  we  observe  that  not  long  afterward  the  Arabic 


—  31  — 

peripateticism  was  taught  with  a  hitherto  unprecedented  bold- 
ness. 

One  of  the  most  renowned  men  at  that  time,  worthy  to  be 
mentioned  under  the  promoters  of  philosophical  studies,  was 
Jedaja  Penini,  called  Bedersi,  also  Bedarshi,  because  he  was 
born  in  the  city  of  Beziers. 

On  account  of  his  work,  entitled :  "Bechinoth  Olom  "  (Ex- 
amination of  the  World),  a  book  on  morality  which  represents 
the  nothingness  of  this  world  in  a  very  sublime  and  racy 
Hebrew  style,  he  wore  the  appellation,  "The  Eloquent.'' 

This  work  gained  the  attention  of  Christian  literati  and  was 
translated  into  many  languages. 

Jedaja  shows  therein  that  true  happiness  of  man  can  only  be 
gained  by  religious  exactitude  and  knowledge,  and  concludes 
with  an  admonition  to  the  reader  to  take  for  a  guide  the  doc- 
trines of  the  greatest  teacher  of  the  synagogue,  namely,  Moses 
ben  Maimon — Maimonides. 

In  an  apology,  directed  to  Solomon  ben  Adereth,  Jedaja 
defends  zealously  the  philosophical  studies  against  the  ban 
under  which  the  Rabbis  of  Barcelona  put  them. 

There  is  still  a  translation,  by  Jedaja,  of  a  treatise  by  Farabi, 
entitled,  "De  intellectu  et  intellecto;"  and  many  other  philo- 
sophical writings. 

Joseph  Ibn  Caspi,  of  Caspe,  in  Aragonia,  is  the  name  of 
another  philosopher  of  that  time,  under  whose  numerous  works 
we  find  commentaries  of  Maimonides'  "  Guide  of  the  Strays," 
and  an  abridged  contents  of  the  "  Organon,"  by  Aristotle.  (22) 

But  the  philosopher  and  exeget,  Levi  ben  Gerson,  of  Bagnols 
(near  Gerona,  on  the  Spanish  boundary),  called  Master  Leon 
(among  the  Jews  Ralbag),  undoubtedly  one  of  the  greatest  peri- 
patetics during  the  fourteenth  century,  and  also  the  boldest  of 
all  Jewish  philosophers,(23)  eclipsed  all  his  contemporaries.    His 


works  received  great  approbation  among  his  co-religionists,  and 
nearly  all  were  published  in  many  editions.  This  success  is  the 
more  astonishing  as  the  author  explicitly  acknowledged  the 
philosophy  of  Aristotle  as  an  absolute  truism,  without  using  the 
caution  of  Maimonides,  and  contorted  the  spirit  of  the  Bible  as 
well  as  the  tenets  of  faith  in  order  to  fit  them  to  his  peripatetic 
ideas.  It  almost  seems,  that  on  account  of  his  great  merits 
about  the  exegesis,  they  pardoned  him  for  overstepping  the  proper 
boundaries  as  a  philosopher  and  theologian.  And  it  is  also 
possible,  that  in  a  time  when  a  decline  of  the  study  of  phi- 
losophy prevailed  and  combats  were  discontinued,  they  busied 
themselves  with  reading  the  ample  works  of  Levi  ben  Gerson, 
which  attract  by  the  easiness  of  style  and  diversity  of  contents 
without  comprehending  their  full  scope. 

He  composed  very  extensive  Biblical  commentaries,  wherein 
a  considerable  portion  is  occupied  by  a  philosophical  interpre 
tation.     His  real  philosophical  works  are  as  follows  : 

1.  Commentaries,  not  of  Aristotle,  as  it  reads  usually  in  the 
bibliographical  rabbinical  writings,  but  of  the  middle  commen- 
taries and  some  translations  or  analyses  of  Ibn  Roshd.* 

2.  Milchamoth  Adonaj  (the  wars  of  God)  has  a  philo- 
sophical theological  contents,  wherein  the  author  develops  his 
philosophical  system,  which  is  generally  the  pure  peripateticism 
as  it  represents  itself  among  the  Arabian  philosophers,  and 
wherein  he  endeavors  to  prove  that  the  doctrines  of  Judaism 
perfectly  agree  with  that  system. 


*  These  are  for  the  most  part  among  the  manuscripts  of  the  Parisian 
National  Library.  All  of  that  which  relates  to  the  Isagoge  (preface)  of 
Porphyrias,  to  the  categories  and  to  the  treatise,  "On  theinterpretaiion," 
is  translated  into  Latin  by  Jacob  Mantino,  and  is  printed  in  the  first 
volume  of  both  Latin  editions  of  the  works  of  Aristotle,  with  the  com- 
mentaries of  Averroe. 


—  33  — 

He  finished  this  work  on  the  eighth  of  January,  1329,  and 
divided  it  into  six  books,  which  treats  of  the  nature  and  immor- 
tality of  the  soul,  of  the  knowledge  of  the  future  and  the  pro- 
phetical spirit,  of  God's  knowing  of  particular  and  accidental 
things,  of  the  divine  providence,  of  the  celestial  bodies  and  of 
the  creation. 

In  the  edition  of  Riva  di  Trento,  1560,  is  omitted  the  first 
division  of  the  fifth  book,  which  forms  for  itself  an  extensive 
astronomical  treatise,  and  contains  various  computations  and 
observations  peculiar  to  the  author.  (24)  Among  those  Jewish 
philosophers  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  works  of  which  are  handed 
down  to  us,  Levi  benGerschon  is  the  first  who  ventured  to  com- 
bat candidly  the  dogma  of  the  creation  out  of  nothing  (ex 
nihilo). 

After  an  extensive  demonstration  that  the  world  could  neither 
have  taken  its  orighi  in  an  absolute  nothing  nor  in  a  certain 
matter  (Wars  of  God  I.  vi.,  1  division  chap,  xvii.),  he  arrives  at 
the  conclusion  that  it  originated  in  nothing  and  at  the  same 
time  in  something.  This  something  is  the  first  matter,  which, 
being  without  any  form,  is  withal  nothing.  By  similar  judg- 
ments and  inferences  he  endeavored  to  put  (25)  in  unison  his 
philosophy  with  the  handed-down  dogmas  concerning  many 
other  questions. 

A  less  prolific  author  than  Levi  ben  Gerson,  but  not  a  less 
profoundly  learned  peripatetic,  was  Moses  ben  Joshua,  of  Nar- 
bonne,(26)  whose  posthumous>works  have  an  essential  interest 
for  the  historian  of  philosophy. 

His  commentaries  of  the  most  eminent  Arabian  philoso- 
phers contain  a  great  mass  of  useful  references  and  arc  very 
instructive. 

He  expounded  the  book  "  Makazid,"  by  Gazali  ;(27)  the  treatise 
on  "the  material  intellect  and  the  possibility  of  conjunction," 


—  34  — 

by  Ibn  Roshd,  in  the  year  1344 ;(28)  the  "physical  treatise,"  of 
the  same  author,  and  especially  "  Tractat  de  subtantia  orbis," 
in  the  year  1349  ;(29)  Chai  Ibn  Jocktan,  by  Tophail  (in  the  same 
year);(30)  and  the  "Moreh"  of  Maimonides  (1355  until  1362). 
(31)  Besides  he  quotes  a  commentary  which  he  wrote  "of  the 
physics"  (probably  of  the  middle  commentary  of  Ibn  Roshd). 
(33)* 

Moses  of  Narbonne  has  a  concise  and  sometimes  an  obscure 
style.  His  opinions  are  not  less  bold  than  those  of  Levi  ben 
Gerson ;  but  he  does  not  express  them  with  the  same  clearness 
and  frankness.  Our  attention  is  drawn  at  the  same  time  anew 
to  the  "  Orient,"  by  a  member  of  the  Caraitic  sect,  of  which  we 
lost  sight  of  since  the  tenth  century. 

Aaron  ben  Elia,  of  Nicomedia,  residing  probably  in  Kairo, 
finished,  in  the  year  1346,  a  work  on  philosophy  of  religion, 
entitled :  "  Tree  of  Life,"  which  could  be  ranged  on  the  side  of 
the  excellent  "  Moreh  "  of  Maimonides,  whom  our  author  took 
as  a  model  and  from  whom  he  borrowed  a  great  deal.  Both 
works  breathe  the  same  spirit,  both  assign  to  reason  and  philo- 
sophical speculation  a  considerable  share  in  the  domain  of 
theology. 

Aaron's  works  give  us  more  accurate  disclosures  about  the 
Arabian  sects  than  the  "  Moreh ;  "  and,  therefore,  it  is  in  regard 
to  that  of  great  interest  to  him  who  makes  historical  researches. 
This  work  was  published  in  Hebrew  by  Professor  Delitzsh,  with 
very  learned  prolegomena  and  fragments  of  Arabian  authors, 
which  are  highly  important  to  the  history  of  philosophy. 

The  fifteenth  century  shows  us  still  some  very  remarkable 
Jewish  scholastics,  but  at  the  same  time  the  decline  of  the  peri- 


*  These  commentaries  are  all  extant  in  different  manuscripts  in  the 
National  Library  at  Paris.  There  is  also  a  treatise  of  our  author  ("  On 
the  soul  and  its  abilities"). (32) 


—  35  — 

patetic  philosophy  and  a  return  to  doctrines  which  correspond 
more  with  the  spirit  of  Judaism. 

In  the  year  1425,  Joseph  Albo  became  renowned  by  his  work, 
entitled  :  "  Iccarim  "  (book  of  fundamental  doctrines  of  Juda- 
ism). He  reduced  therein  the  thirteen  articles  of  faith,  laid 
down  by  Maimonides,  to  three  fundamental  doctrines ;  the  ex- 
istence of  God,  revelation  and  immortality  of  the  soul.  (34)  The 
dogma  of  immortality  must  be  considered  as  the  substance  of 
the  third  cardinal  doctrine,  to  which  Albo  gives  more  extension ; 
because  he  comprises  in  the  words  reward  and  punishment, 
retribution  generally  in  this  world  as  in  the  next.  This  work 
makes  an  epoch  in  Jewish  theology;  but  is  merely,  for  the 
history  of  philosoplw,  of  subordinate  advantage. 

Abraham  Bibago,  at  Hueska,  in  Aragonia,  composed,  in  1446, 
a  commentary  of  the  "Last  Analysis"  (Aralytica  posteriora  of 
Aristotle).(35) 

He  resided  later,  about  1470,  at  Saragos8a,(36)  and  became 
renowned  as  a  theologian  by  a  work,  entitled :  "  The  Path  of 
Faith." 

Joseph  ben  Shem  Tob,  whose  father  wrote  against  philosophy 
and  even  against  Maimonides,  became  known  by  different 
theological  and  philosophical  works,  among  which  must  be  (37) 
mentioned  an  ample  commentary  of  "  Ethics  to  Nikomachus," 
which  he  composed  at  Segovia,  1455,  and  another  of  the  treatise, 
"  On  the  material  reason,"  by  Ibn  Roshd. 

His  son,  Shem  Tob,  wrote  philosophical  essays  "  On  the  first 
matter,"  "  On  the  final  cause,"  and  commentaries  of  Maimon- 
ides "Moreh,"  and  of  the  "Physics"  of  Aristotle,(38)  1480. 

At  the  same  time  there  lived,  in  Italy,  a  renowned  Jewish 
philosopher  by  the  name  of  Elias  del  Medigo,  who  was  teacher 
of  philosophy  in  Padua,  and  Pic  de  la  Mirandola  was  one  of 
his  disciples. 


—  36— 

He  composed  for  the  latter  some  philosophical  writings, 
namely,  an  essay  "On  intellect  and  prophecy,"  (1482),  and  a 
commentary  of  the  treatise,  "  De  substantia  orbis,"  by  Ibn 
Roshd  (1485).  His  questions  about  several  philosophical  sub- 
jects were  published  in  the  Latin  language. 

In  a  little  Hebrew  work,  entitled,  "  Examination  of  the  Law  " 
(that  is  of  the  religious  law),  which  he  composed  in  1491,  he  tried 
to  prove  that  the  study  of  philosophy  can  not  injure  the  religious 
feelings ;  but  one  must  know  very  well  to  discriminate  between 
that  which  belongs  to  the  domain  of  philosophy  and  that  which 
belongs  to  religion. (39) 

The  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  the  whole  Spanish  monarchy, 
which  happened  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  centur}'',  destroyed 
the  center  of  the  Jewish  civilization  at  that  time.  On  the  other 
side,  the  decline  of  the  scholastic  lore  effected  the  annihilation 
of  the  philosophical  studies  among  the  Jews,  as  the  latter 
languishing  everywhere  from  severe  oppression,  they  could  not 
participate  in  the  new  spiritual  life  which  was  spreading  in 
Europe. 

The  civilization  of  the  Spanish  Jews  died  out  without  having 
been  replaced  soon  by  a  new  one. 

We  hear  still  some  echo  of  Jewish  scholastic  lore ;  here  and 
there  noticeable  eminent  men  among  the  Spanish  emigrants,  as, 
for  instance,  the  renowned  Isaac  Abarvanel  and  his  son  Juda  ; 
but  the  history  of  Jewish  philosophy  (if  such  an  expression 
may  be  used)  is  now  really  closed. 

The  Jews,  endeavoring  to  bring  the  Arabian  philosophy  in 
conformity  with  their  religion,  gave  the  peripatetic  doctrine  an 
especial  character,  by  which  it  became  for  them,  in  some 
respects,  a  national  philosophy. 

If  there  have  been  since  then  some  philosophers  among  the 
Jews,  they  belong  to  the  history  of  a  universal  civilization,  an(l 


—  37  — 

are  not  to  be  regarded  as  philosophers  of  their  particular  creed. 
Spinoza,  who  philosophized  without  any  regard  for  the  religious 
feelings  of  a  congregation  consisting  mostly  of  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  refugees,  sacrifices  of  the  inquisition,  which  felt  no 
sympath}'-  for  men  who  suffered  so  much  on  account  of  their 
beHef,  was  disowned  by  the  Jews. 

Even  Moses  INlendclssohn,  who  interested  himself  so  nobly  for 
the  cause  of  his  co-religionists,  and  on  whom  we  look  as  the 
creator  of  the  modern  civilization  of  the  European  Jews,  he 
would  and  could  not  establish  for  them  a  new  philosophical  era. 
In  fine,  the  Jews  as  a  nation,  or  as  a  religious  association,  play 
only  a  secondary  part  in  the  history  of  philosophy,  because 
this  w'as  not  their  mission. 

They,  however,  in  conjunction  with  the  Arabs,  indisputably 
partake  of  the  merit  of  having  preserved  and  promulgated  the 
philosophical  knowledge  during  the  centuries  of  barbarism,  and 
have  exercised  for  a  long  time  a  civilizing  influence  on  the 
European  world. 


NOTES  OF  THE  AUTHOR. 


No.  1.  Even  Arabic  authors  adopted  the  erroneous  opinion, 
that  Greek  philosophy  was  borrowed  from  the  Jews.  See  "Treatise 
on  Animals,"  by  Kalonimos  ben  Kalonimos,  which  contains  an 
extract  from  an  Arabic  Encyclopoedia,  entitled :  "  Resail  ikh- 
wan  alcafa,"  or  "  Treatise  of  the  Brothers  of  Purity,"  translated 
into  Hebrew.  Again,  Ichwan-os-suffa,  in  the  original  Arabic, 
Calcuth,  1812  ;  page  214. 

No.  2.  Anan,  founder  of  Karaism,  flourished  certainly  under 
the  Califate  of  Abu  Djafar  al  Mansur,  in  the  year  136  of  the 
Hegira,  754  of  the  Christian  era.  See  the  book  (D'n^x  nno)  a 
Hebrew^  manuscript  of  the  Parisian  National  Library,  No,  61. 

No.  3.  In  regard  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Arabian  scholastics, 
comprising  the  Motazales  (n^rnj?»)  as  w^ell  as  the  Asharites 
(iT"ij?u>x),  must  be  remarked  that  the  latter  were  absolute  fatalists, 
while  the  Motazales,  who  conceded  that  man  had  a  free  will  and 
acknowledged  the  justice  of  God,  maintain  that  man  does 
good  or  evil  of  his  own  accord.  They  also  agreed  not  to  admit 
any  attributes  separated  from  the  divine  being,  and  avoided  by 
that  all  which  could  be  prejudicial  to  the  dogma  of  the  unity  of 
God.  On  account  of  these  two  principal  points  of  their  doctrine, 
they  assumed  the  name  ''  Retainers  of  Justice  and  Unity," 
and  exactly  the  same  expressions  are  used  by  Masudi,  an  Ara- 
bian historian  of  the  tenth  century,  in  order  to  signif}^  the 
disciples  of  Anan.  See  "  Notices  et  extraits  des  manusc.  T.  viii., 
p.  167,  168.     Silv.  de  Sacy,  "Chrest  Arabe,"   T.  I.  p.  349-51, 


—  39  — 

The  Karaite,  Aaron  ben  Elias,  says,  explicitly,  that  the  Karaitic, 
as  well  as  a  part  of  the  Rabbinical  philosophers,  are  followers 
of  the  principles  of  the  Motazales.  (See  D^'H  ]']}  A.  b.  El.  S^'stem 
der  religioesen  Philosophic  v.  F.  Delitzsch,  Leipzig,  1841 ;  8  p.  4.) 
No.  4.  When  the  King  of  the  Chasars  asked  the  savant  to 
represent  to  him  the  substance  of  the  dogmas  of  tlic  Caraitic 
philosophers,  he  expressed  himself  about  it,  according  to  the 
Arabic  original  (manuscript  in  the  Bodleian  Library),  as  follows  : 
"  I  desire  to  know  some  summary  fundamental  principles  of  the 
views  of  the  Okulijim,  or  of  those  who  judge  of  the  funda- 
mental principles,  called,  l)y  the  Karaites,  masters  of  the  knowl- 
edge of  Kalam  (speech  or  word). 

No.  5.  In  the  book,  entitled :  "  Eshkol  Hakofer,"  by  the 
Karaite  Juda  Hadassi,  is  mentioned  our  David  Al-Rakki.  He 
was  called  so  because  he  was  undoubtedly  born  in  the  city 
of  Rakka  or  Racca. 

No.  6.  Bechai,  or  Bachje,  when  enumerating  the  different 
classes  of  religious  writings,  expressed  himself  in  the  preface  of 
his  book,  "  On  the  duties  of  the  heart,"  as  follows  :  "  The  third 
class  causes  to  strengthen  the  religious  subjects  in  the  minds  by 
arguments  and  refutation  of  heretics,  as  the  book  '  On  faith  and 
knowledge,'  by  Sadias ;  the  book  '  On  the  fundamental  princi- 
ples of  the  Law,'  and  the  book  'Almokames,'  and  such  like." 
'*  Tn  the  same  sense,"  says  Jcdaja  Penini,  in  his  apologetic 
writing,  mS^^nn  3n3  concerning  the  Moreli  Ncbuchim  directed 
to  Rabl>i  Solomon  ben  Adereth,  "  Rabbi  David  Hababli,  called 
Al  Mokames,  from  whom  we  have  a  book  which  was  entitled 
after  his  surname,  wherein  he  endeavors,  by  a  careful  inquiry,  to 
give  arguments  for  well-known  principles  of  faith,  and  to  com- 
bat by  that  the  opinions  and  refutations  of  heretics." 

The  book,  "Al-Mokammcs,"  which  was  composed  in  tlio  Arabic 
language,  contained  twenty  chapters ;  three  of  them  were  traced 


—  40  — 

out  in  the  Hebrew  language  not  long  ago,  and  were  published 
by  Professor  Fuerst.  The  second  contained  the  ninth  and  the 
third  a  part  of  the  tenth  chapter.  The  same  fragments,  with 
the  exception  of  the  latter,  were  published  by  A.  D.  Luzatto, 
in  Halichoth  Kedem,  by  Pollak.     Amsterdam,  1847. 

[Dr.  B.  Beer,  in  his  German  translation  of  this  book,  remarks 
that  Professor  Steinschneider  communicated  to  him  that  Moses 
ben  Esra  quoted  also  the  twenty  chapters  of  "  Al-Mokammes 
Alrakki. — Translator.] 

No.  7.  From  two  places  of  Jephet's  commentaries  on  Gen.  i. 
26  and  Psalm  viii.  6,  it  seems  evident  that  David  ben  Merwan 
belonged  to  the  Karaitic  sect,  which  is  doubted  by  Professor 
Fuerst  and  others.  Jephet,  who  lived  in  the  tenth  century, 
must  have  known  the  truth.  The  criticism  which  he  makes 
there,  concerning  David  ben  Merwan,  would  have  been  severer 
had  he  directed  it  against  a  Rabbinist,  and  he  would  not  have 
failed  to  cry  at  his  heresy. 

No.  8.  Compare  Abraham  ben  David,  in  "  Sefer  Hakabalah,'* 
ed.  Amsterdam,  p.  41  6.,  about  some  literati  who  were  taken 
prisoners  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  by  the  captain  of  a  ship  of 
Abd-al  Rahman  III.,  two  of  whom  were  ransomed  by  the  Jewish 
congregation  at  Cordova. 

No.  9.  Abn  Jussuf  Chasdai  ben  Isaac,  whose  family  name 
was  Shafrut  or  Shaprut,  was  one  of  those  fortunate  men  who 
know  how  to  gain,  by  genius  and  knowledge,  a  high  station  in 
life,  by  which  they  become  powerful  protectors  of  their  oppressed 
brethren ;  because  it  is  a  gross  mistake  when  one  believes  that 
the  Jews  residing  in  Mussulmanic  Spain  generally  enjoyed 
equal  rights  with  the  dominant  tribe  or  were  safe  from  persecu- 
tion and  debasement.  Chasdai  had  a  great  credit  with  Abd-al- 
Rahman  III.  His  expressions  concerning  it,  in  a  letter  directed 
to  Joseph,  King  of  the  Chasars,  in  the  year  950,  are  published 


—  41  — 

in  the  preface  of  the  book  "  Kusari,"  in  some  editions,  and  are 
confirmed  b}'  some  Arabian  authors. 

The  physician,  Ibn  Djoldjol,  at  Cordova,  who  lived  under  the 
government  of  Hesham  II.  (976-1001),  mentioned  our  Chasdai 
among  the  physicians  of  Abd-al-Rahmau,  and  speaks  of  the 
particular  credit  he  had  with  this  King,  and  that  he  used  zeal- 
ously his  high  position  to  serve  the  sciences  by  co-operating  to 
complete  an  Arabian  translation  of  Dioscoiides.  See  Silv.  de 
Saci  "  Relation  de  I'Egypte  par  Abdallatif,"  p.  497  et  500.  Ibn 
Abi  Oceibia,  who  preserved  for  us  the  above  quotation  of  Djol- 
djol, in  his  "  History  of  the  Physicians,"  and  took  particular 
notice  of  "  Chasdai,"  which  was  not  yet  printed,  we  will  give 
here  a  translation  of  it.  "  Chasdai  ben  Isaac,  well  posted  in 
the  science  of  medicine,  was  in  the  service  of  Al-Hakem,  son  of 
Abd-al-Rahman,  who  was  called  Al-Nacir  Ledin-allah.  Chasdai 
ben  Isaac  belonged  to  the  Jewish  literati,  who  held  the  first  rank 
concerning  the  knowledge  of  their  law ;  he  opened,  for  his  co- 
religionists in  Andalusia,  the  gates  of  knowledge  of  the  religious 
jurisprudence,  chronology,  etc. 

Previous  to  that  time,  they  had  to  address  themselves  to  the 
Jews  in  Bagdad  concerning  suits,  calendars  and  the  time  of 
festivals ;  they  had  to  send  to  them  for  the  computation  of  a 
certain  number  of  years  in  behalf  of  the  calendar  procedure  and 
the  New  Year's  days.  But  when  Chasdai  was  appointed  by  Al- 
Hakem,  who  gave  him  a  high  situation,  he  succeeded  in  procuring 
for  himself,  from  the  Jews  in  the  Orient,  all  the  books  which  he 
wanted.  Since  that  time  the  Jews  in  Andalusia  knew  that 
which  before  was  unknown  to  them,  and  were  spared  all  the 
trouble  they  had  previously  to  undergo. 

A  Christian  author  at  that  time  mentions  also  our  Chasdai, 
on  the  occasion  of  an  embassy,  which  the  CJerman  Emperor 
Otto  1.  sent  to  Cordova,  953.     Abd-al-Rahman  III.  wanted  to 


-42  — 

know  the  main  object  of  the  mission  before  he  would  receive  the 
embassadors,  and  commissioned  Chasdai  to  hold  a  private  inter- 
view with  Abbot  John  von  Goerz.  (See  "Vita  Jonnis  abbat. 
Gorziensis,"  by  Labbe,  nova  bibliotheca  manusc.  lib.  T.  I.,  p. 
772.  Holland,  "Acta  Sanctor.,"  T.  Ill,  p.  713.  "  Pertz  monii- 
menta  Germanise  historica,"  T.  IV.,  p.  371  and  372.) 

No.  10.  I  entered  already  into  particulars  in  Lit.  Bl.  d.  Or., 
1846,  No.  46,  to  prove  that  Avicebron,  who  was  mentioned  by 
Ritter  among  the  Arabian  philosophers,  was  no  other  than  the 
Jewish  poet,  Ibn  Gabirol.  The  renowned  historian  of  phi- 
losophy acknowledged  the  correctness  of  my  arguments,  and 
expressed  this  explicitly  in  an  essay  contained  in  the  "  Goet- 
tinger  gelehrten  Anzeigen,"  April  17,  1847.  At  the  close  of  that 
article  Professor  Ritter  says :  "  I  certainly  believed  that  the 
philosophy  of  the  Middle  Ages  owed  no  thanks  to  the  Jewish 
philosophers  for  a  fertile  influence,  but  Mr.  Munk's  discovery 
reclaimed  me  from  this  error." 

No.  11.  Shemtob  ben  Joseph  ben  Palquera,  or  Falquera,  a 
Spaniard,  was  born  between  1224  and  1228.  In  the  preface  of 
one  of  his  works  (Mebakesh),  composed  in  October,  1263,  he  says 
he  has  already  passed  half  of  seventy  years  and  is  about  forty 
years  of  age.  All  his  works  evince  his  extensive  and  profound 
learning,  and  especially  his  thorough  knowledge  of  the  philo- 
sophical works  of  the  Arabians.  His  commentaries  of  the  whole 
Bible,  which  he  himself  quoted  (see  preface  of  "  Moreh  hamo- 
reh"),  were  not  transmitted  to  us,  but  the  following  books  were, 
of  which  he  composed  the  five  first  ones  before  he  was  thirty- 
five  years  of  age.     They  are  : 

1st.  trwrn  5|ijn  njnjn  ^nn  mJS  Treatise  written  in  verses  on 
the  conduct  of  the  body  and  soul.  Manusc.  in  the  Medizaeic 
Library  at  Florence. 

2d.     prn  nv  "  Balm  of  sorrow,"  or  "  On  the  resignation  and 


—  43  — 

power  of  the  soul  in  misfortune."     Published  at  Cremone,  1550, 
at  Prague,  1612. 

[Dr.  B.  Beer  remarks  that  the  main  contents  of  this  book, 
which  was  published  in  Cremona,  was  not  composed  by  Shem- 
tob,  but  that  the  greater  part  of  the  text,  as  well  as  the  comments 
thereon,  were  those  of  a  certain  person  called  Saul,  who  was  in 
possession  of  an  original  copy,  and  having  lost  it,  composed  the 
book  entirely  from  memory.  The  main  contents  of  the  book 
correspond  with  that  of  Palquera. — Translator.] 

3d.  m3"'in  mJN  Colloquy  of  a  theologian  and  philosopher 
concerning  the  reconciliation  of  religion  with  philosophy.  Pub- 
Hshed  at  Prague,  1610,  8. 

4th.  noDn  n't'X'i  "  The  beginning  of  wisdom,"  or  "  Guide  in 
sciences."  This  work  consists  of  three  sections  :  the  first  treats 
of  moral  qualities  which  ought  to  be  possessed  in  order  to  begin 
the  study  of  sciences  and  philosophy ;  the  second  contains  a 
review  of  all  sciences ;  and  the  third  discusses  the  necessitv 
of  philosophical  studies  in  order  to  gain  true  happiness.  A 
manuscript  of  this  work  is  in  the  Vatican,  and  in  the  Parisian 
National  Library  there  is  a  Latin  translation  of  it,  and  before 
that  is  also  a  translation  of  the  work  No.  3,  Manusc.  No.  6691  a. 

5th.  mSyon  1DD  "  The  book  on  the  ranks,"  or  "  Treatise  on 
the  degrees  of  human  perfection  and  on  the  more  or  less  perfect 
societies."  Manusc.  in  the  Paris  National  Library,  suppl.  heb- 
No.  15,  wherein  is  also  contained  the  above-mentioned  work 
No.  3. 

6th.  \yp:iDr\  "The  Searcher"  (after  knowledge).  Review 
of  human  knowledge.  Composed  1263,  in  an  elegant  style, 
rhymed  prose  intermingled  with  verses.  Published,  Amsterdam, 
1779,  8. 

7th.     C2Jn  'D     Book  on  the  soul  in  twenty  chapters,  according 


_44  — 

to  the  principles  of  the  Arabian  peripatetics.  Manusc.  No.  239 
Hebrew  manusc.  of  the  Parisian  National  Library. 

8th.  Q'^V^r]  n^^hv  Perfection  of  works.  A  small  moral 
treatise  of  ten  chapters  (It  is  in  the  same  manuscript  with 
No.  7.) 

9th.  miDH  miD  Commentary  on  the  philosophical  places  in 
Maimonides'  "  Moreh;"  composed  in  1280.  It  is  of  great  utility 
for  the  study  of  the  Arabian  philosophy.  In  the  appendix  are 
amended  many  places  of  Ibn  Tibbon's  translation  according  to 
the  Arabian  original,  published  at  Presburg  (l)y  Bissliches) 
1837-8.     Manusc.  in  the  Paris  National  Librar3^ 

10th.  "  Apologetic  writing  for  the  Moreh,"  by  Maimonides, 
who  was  assailed  anew  by  some  French  Rabins  in  1290.  It  is 
printed  at  the  close  of  the  work  niNJp  nnjo  Presburg,  1833-8. 
Manusc.  at  the  close  of  the  above-mentioned  work — No.  9. 

11th.  Extracts  from  the  work  D^^n  mp!D  ''Source  of  life,"  by 
Solomon  Gabirol,  which  he  translated  from  the  Arabic  language 
into  Hebrew.  Heb.  Manusc,  of  the  Parisian  National  Library, 
No.  239.  The  author  mentions  in  his  preface  of  the  "  Meba- 
kesh,"  besides  all  these  works,  two  books  more  which  he  has 
composed  :  "iDlon  mJX  "  Writing  on  morality,"  and  |n3Tn  nh'JO 
"  Scroll  on  memory,"  or  "  Recollections,"  of  which  we  find  no 
trace  anywhere. 

No.  12.  Bechaja,  or  Bachja,  who  is  usually  supposed  to  have 
lived  in  the  twelfth  century,  but  who  lived  at  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century,  as  it  is  proved  by  Rappaport  in  his  biography 
of  Rabbi  Nathan,  p.  42,  note  40;  because  as  our  author,  when 
quoting  all  the  different  compendiums  of  the  Talmud,  did  not 
make  any  mention  of  that  by  the  distinguished  Rabbi,  Isaac 
Alfasi,  who  died  1103.  The  name  Bechai  must  be  pronounced 
Bachja  or  Bachje,  as  Menasse  ben  Israel  and  other  Jewish 
Spanish  authors  pronounce  it ;  as,  for  instance,  the  author  of 


—  45  — 

the  poetical  translation  of  the  "  Chobot  halbaboth,"  published 
in  Amsterdam,  1670. 

No.  13.  According  to  the  report  of  Masudi,  this  conversion 
took  place  at  the  time  of  the  Kalif  Harun-al-Rashid.  See  El- 
Masudi's  historical  encyclopoedia,  entitled,  "  Meadows  of  Gold," 
etc.,  translated  from  the  Arabic  by  A.  Sprenger,  v.  T.,  p.  407.  It 
is  to  be  regretted  that  we  no  longer  possess  the  works  from 
which  Masudi  has  drawn  the  communications  about  the  par- 
ticulars of  the  conversion  of  the  King  of  the  Chasars. 

At  a  period  when  stupid  hatred  and  unreasonable  prejudices 
played  the  part  of  criticism,  where  the  Jews  were  concerned 
Christian  authors,  as  Buxtorf,  Basnage,  Baratier,  etc.,  scoffed  at 
the  Jews  on  account  of  their  statement  that  the  Jewish  religion 
occupied  a  throne  during  many  centuries  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
Basnage  even  says :  "  One  may  search  for  the  empire  of  the 
Chasars  very  far  and  he  will  find  it  nowhere  (Hist.  d.  J.  I.  VII., 
chap.  1,  §  14.)  It  required  the  evidence  of  Arabian  authors  to 
prove  the  great  exactness  of  the  Jewish  communications,  and 
especially  of  the  answer  and  all  its  particulars,  which  was  sent 
by  Joseph,  King  of  the  Chasars,  to  Chasdai  ben  Joseph. 

A  full  description  of  the  Chasars  in  the  tenth  century, 
according  to  Arabian  authors,  is  to  be  found  in  the  excellent 
works  by  d'Ohsson,  "  Des  peuples  du  Caucase,  au  Voy  d'Abou 
El-Casem,"  Paris,  1828,  8,  chaps.  2  and  3. 

[Dr.  B.  Beer  remarks  :  "  Compare,  also,  concerning  the  Chasars, 
'  History  of  Russia,'  by  Karamsin  ;  German  by  Trappe,  Dresden, 
Arnold,  vol.  I.,  p.  41.  See  also  'Maggarische  Alterthuemer,'  by 
S.  Cassel,  Berlin,  1848."— Translator.] 

No.  11.  Juda  Halevi  expressed  himself  energetically  in  his 
poems  against  the  Greek  philosophy,  which  he  claims  to  proffer 
many  blossoms  but  no  fruits.  "  Having  heard,"  says  he,  "the 
abstruse  words  of  philosophy  constructed  upon  a  weak  fountla- 


—  46  — 

tion,  one  returns  with  an  empty  heart  and  the  mouth  filled  with 
phrases  and  idle  talk."  (See  "  Bethulath  bath.  Jehudah,"  by 
Luzatto,  Prague,  1840,  p.  56.) 

No.  15.  Ibn  Ezra,  renowned  among  the  Jews  as  one  of  the 
most  rational  and  boldest  commentators  of  the  Bible,  was  in  the 
Middle  Ages  not  less  distinguished  on  account  of  his  astrolo- 
gical knowledge,  so  that  he  was  considered  as  one  of  -the  most 
learned  of  this  chimerical  knowledge,  for  which  he  wrote  a 
series  of  works  that  were  formerly  much  appreciated.  Petrus 
Paduanus  translated  them  into  Latin,  in  the  year  1293.  (Maunsc. 
of  the  Paris  National  Library  No.  7348.)  The  Hebrew  originals 
are  also  in  manuscript  in  the  same  library. 

The  books,  oSiyn  'D  and  Dyt^n  'D  nnSinn  'd  were  pubHshed 
under  different  editorships,  which  were  known  to  Pico  de  la  Mi- 
randola.  Compare  his ''Disput.  in  Astrologiam  I.,"  viii.,  c.  5. 
He  quoted  the  first  edition  of  the  book,  "  Astrologicis  ration- 
ibus  "  (Q"'»yt2n  ^D)  and  adds  :  "  Conscripsit  enim  (Avenezra)  de 
eadem  re  libros  duos." 

No.  16.  Compare  Maimonides'  letter  to  his  disciple  Joseph 
Not.  sur  Jos.  ben  Jehuda,  "Journal  asiat.,"  Juil,  1842,  p.  31. 

No.  17.  Jacob  ben  Abba-Mari,  residing  at  Neapel,  says,  in  a 
transcript  of  his  translation  of  the  middle  commentary  of  Ibn 
Roshd  on  the  "  Organon,"  which  he  finished  1232,  that  he  was 
receiving  a  pension  from  the  Emperor,  who,  as  he  adds,  "loves 
the  sciences  and  all  who  occupy  themselves  with  them." 

No.  18.  Or  better,  "  Anatolio  "  vSltDJN  as  it  reads  sometimes 
in  manuscripts,  namely,  in  No.  207  de  I'ancien  fonds,  in  the 
continuation  of  the  translation  of  the  extract  of  the  "Almagest," 
by  Ibn  Roshd. 

No.  19.  Kalonymos  was  born  in  1287,  as  it  appears  by  many 
remarks  at  the  close  of  many  works  which  he  translated.  Con- 
cerning this  author,  compare  Zunz  in  "  Geiger's  Zeitschrift," 


-47- 

vol.  II,  p.  313-320;  vol.  IV,  p.  199-201.  He  has  certainly 
composed  also  Latin  translations,  as  the  author  of  "  Sifthe 
Jeshenim"  cites.  This  name  is  identical  with  Oalo  Kalonymos, 
who  translated  into  Latin  the  "  Destructio  dcstructionis,"  and 
many  other  treatises  by  Averrois.  At  the  beginning  of  a  man- 
uscript of  |ni3  pN*  (fonds  des  Oratoriuui  No.  24)  he  is  explicitly 
called  hap  noc^'X©  (Master  Kalo). 

No.  20.  Todros  is  a  translator  of  a  eojumontary,  by  Ibn 
Roshd,  on  "  Rhetoric  and  Poetry  of  Aristotle,"  wiiich  work  is 
dated  Trinquetaille,  near  Aries,  1337. 

No.  21.  We  can  not  pass  over  in  silence  two  more  meritori- 
ous men — Jacob  ben  Machir,  of  Montpellier,  and  Samuel  ben 
Jehuda,  of  Marseilles.  The  first  lived  at  Montpellier  in  the 
second  half  of  the  thirteenth  centur}^  and  the  first  years  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  He  composed  translations  of  a  great  many 
philosophical  and  niathematical  works  from  the  Arabic,  as  well 
as  having  written  many  very  esteemed  astronomical  treatises 
which  were  translated  into  Latin.  He  was  also  called  Profiat 
or  Profatius,  and  under  this  name  he  was  also  known  among 
Christians. 

Wolf  (Ribl.  Hebr.  vol.  I.,  p.  988;  vol.  IIL,  p.  94-1)  has  errone- 
ously presented  Profatius  and  Jacob  ben  Machir  as  two  different 
authors.  The  treatise  quoted  by  Wolf  dc  Quadrante,  in  the 
Parisian  National  Library,  Latin  Manusc.  No.  7437,  is  merely  a 
literal  translation  of  the  Hebrew  treatise,  ^XiJ^''  J/Dn  by  Jacob 
ben  Machir. 

Samuel  ben  Jehudah  ben  Meshullam  was  born  1294,  and  was 
usualh'  known  (according  to  his  own  statements)  by  the  name, 
of  Miles  of  Marseilles.  His  grandfather,  Meshullam.  was  a  great 
grandchild  of  Jacob  ben  David  Profiague,  who  is  mentioned,  by 
Benjamin  of  Tudela,  as  one  of  the  richest  residents  of  Marseilles, 
and  who,  according  to  the  appendix  of  "Shebet  Jehudah,"  died 


-48- 

in  1170.  Samuel  devoted  himself,  from  his  eighteenth  year,  to 
the  study  of  sciences  and  philosophy,  studied  astronomy  at 
Salon  Ch^)  under  the  direction  of  Abba-Mari,  usually  called 
Sennor  Astruc  of  Noves.  In  1322  he  was  taken  in  custody  with 
other  Jews  at  Beaucaire.  We  find  him,  by  turns,  at  Murcia,  in 
Spain,  at  Tarascona  ( 1329-30  >,  Aix  (1335-36),  Monteil  Aimart 
or  Montelimart,  1340.  The  Parisian  National  Library  possesses 
his  translation  of  the  treatise,  "  De  Anima,"  by  Alexander  of 
Aphrodisia,  of  the  "Almagest,"  b}^  Ibn  Aflah,  and  of  an  extract 
of  the  "  Organon,"  by  Ibn  Roshd.  At  the  close  of  the  works 
mentioned  are  a  few  biographical  particulars  about  Samuel  ben 
Jehudah. 

No.  22.  Compare  "  Zunz  additam.  ad  Catol.  Lips,"  p.  323. 
From  some  investigations  which  I  have  made  in  the  manu- 
scripts in  the  Parisian  National  Library,  to  which  Mr.  Carmoli 
called  my  attention,  it  follows  that  J.  Caspi,  of  I'Argentiere,  in 
Languedoc,  now  dep.  de  I'Ardeche,  was  born  there.  Caspi  is 
undoubtedly  the  Hebrew  translation  of  I'Argentiere,  as  it  was 
customary  at  that  time.  For  instance,  Lunel-Jarchi,  Mont- 
pellier  Hargaash.  Concerning  the  life  of  Caspi,  compare  De 
Rossi  Catal.  cod.  755.  Delitzsch  and  Zunz  at  other  places.  In 
the  manuscript  fond  de  I'orat  No.  105,  the  author  is  called 
K-iC^Sixbl  CJ^ISJUN  that  is,  Bonafoux  de  I'Argentiere. 

No.  23.  Neither  the  year  of  his  birth  nor  of  his  death  is  ex- 
actly known.  De  Rossi  maintains  that  he  was  born  1288,  as  he 
found  it  in  a  manuscript  of  an  arithmetic  by  Levi  ben  Gerson, 
which  harmonizes  well  with  the  time  of  his  composition  of  his 
other  different  works.  But  a  remark  which  is  at  the  close  of  a 
manuscript  of  Rashi's  Bible  commentary  (fonds  de  Sorbonne 
No.  50)  gives  rise  to  some  doubts  about  it.  The  copyist,  David 
ben  Gerson,  says  that  he  wrote  this  commentary  for  the  use  of 
his   brother.  Rabbi    Levi,   5058    (A.   M.)    1298.     Now,  were  it 


-49  — 

proved  that  he  meant  by  this  Rabbi  Levy  ben  Gerson,  we  must 
presume  that  he  was  born  at  an  earlier  period  than  that  given 
by  De  Rossi.  This  manuscript,  liowever,  which  is  written  in 
German  characters,  and  therefore  being  improbable  that  it 
should  have  been  written  in  Provence,  could  have  been  com- 
posed by  one  bearing  the  same  name. 

According  to  Juchsin,  Levi  ben  Gerson  died  in  1370;  but  it 
is  not  probable  that  he  lived  so  long,  because  his  last  works  are 
dated  1338,  and  his  astronomical  observations  do  not  reach 
beyond  1340. 

We  know,  nevertheless,  according  to  a  few  statements  at  the 
close  of  his  works,  that  his  literary  activity  began  1321  and 
closed  1338,  although  some  sections  of  his  "  Milchamoth  Ado- 
naj  "  were  already  composed  or  sketched  1316  or  17.  (Compare 
the  edition  of  this  work,  p.  68  b.)  He  began  with  an  Arith- 
metical work,  "iDDOn  IDD  which  he  finished  April,  1321.  He 
devoted  the  other  part  of  that  year  and  the  two  succeeding  years 
to  the  explanation  of  different  commentaries,  by  Ibn  Roshd,  on 
Aristotle.  He  proceeded  then  to  elucidations  of  such  parts  of 
the  Bible,  where  he  could  give  his  philosophical  exegesis  full 
scope,  as  Canticles,  Job,  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis,  and  Ec- 
clesiastes.  At  the  same  time  he  composed  also  his  work,  "  Milch- 
amoth Adonaj."  After  the  conclusion  of  that  he  gradually  wrote 
commentaries  on  the  books,  ''  Esther  and  Ruth,"  "  The  Penta- 
teuch," "  The  First  Prophets,"  "  Daniel,"  "  Ezra,"  "  Nehemiah," 
"The  Chronicles,"  and  at  last,  "The  Proverbs  of  Solomon," 
which  he  concluded  on  the  third  (Tjar)  April  23,  1338.  We 
have  reason  to  ])resume  that  Levi  ben  Gerson  had  his  main 
residence  in  the  earldom  Venaissin.  According  to  a  Latin  note, 
which  we  will  cite  afterward,  he  resided  in  the  city  of  Orange. 
He  went  from  there  very  often  to  a  city,  which  he  called  Hyssop 


—  so- 
City  (niTxn  T'j;),  in  order  to  make  astronomical  observations. 
Many  Jewish  authors  were  called  after  this  city,  ^niTSn  (Haesobi.) 

This  proves  that  31isn  is  not  the  corrupted  name  of  a  city, 
but  the  Hebrew  word  for  "  hysop,"  which  Joseph  ben  Caspi, 
author  of  the  "  Kaaroth  Kesseph,"  signified  by  the  words  :  "  My 
name  is  Hyssop,  but  my  words  are  Cedars."  We  believe  that 
Hyssop  City  is  identical  with  Avignon,  although  we  can  not  un- 
derstand clearly  the  etymological  connection  between  Avignon 
and  Hyssop.  At  the  close  of  his  commentary  on  '^  Deuteronomy," 
Levi  ben  Gerson  says  that  he  has  finished  this  work  in  Hyssop 
City ;  and  it  is  added,  in  a  manuscript  in  the  Parisian  National 
Library  ( Anc.  fonds  No.  79) :  "  When  one  is  reading  this  book, 
he  shall  consider  that  I  have  composed  this  whole  commentary 
in  great  haste  in  the  city  Avignon,  without  having  had  at  hand 
any  Talmudical  or  Biblical  books.  From  this  it  evidently  follows 
that  "  Ir  haesob  "  was  Avignon,  and  that  Levi  ben  Gerson  lived 
there  at  certain  times.  In  his  astronomical  works  we  often  find 
mentioned  "  Ir  haesob,"  but  once  only  Avignon.  Probably 
Avignon,  -which  was  at  that  time  the  capital  of  the  Pope, 
attracted  our  Levi  ben  Gerson  on  account  of  its  scientific 
sources.  [Hyssop  is  a  plant  which  was  used  by  the  Jewish 
priest  in  ancient  times  to  cleanse  the  lepers.  Avignon  being 
the  capital  of  the  pope,  who  was  considered  by  Christians  to 
have  the  power  to  forgive  sins  and  to  cleanse  the  unclean,  it 
seems  probable  that  the  Jewish  literati  therefore  called  it  "  Hys- 
sop."— Translator.] 

No.  24.  The  Parisian  National  Library  possesses  three  manu- 
scripts of  this  work,  one  of  which  is  not  complete.  The  work 
consists  of  136  chapters.  Having  prefaced  by  some  general 
meditations  on  the  advantage  and  difficulty  of  astronomy,  the 
author  portrays  an  instrument  invented  by  him  to  make  with 
it  some  astronomical  observations,  which  he  calls  "  The  dis- 


—  51  — 

coverer  of  subjects  that  are  found  with  great  difficulty"  (n^Jt5 
niplDj?).  In  the  ninth  chapter  he  celebrates  it  in  two  verses.  In 
the  continuation  of  the  work,  he  shows  the  insufficiency  of  the 
Ptolomeic  and  that  of  an  invented  system  of  an  Arabian  astron- 
omer of  the  twelfth  century.  The  latter  is  designated  by  the 
author  "  Baal  Techunah  Chadashah,"  who  is  no  other  than 
Abu  Isak  al  Batrudji  (Al  petragius).  The  latter  system  made  a 
great  sensation,  as  it  appears  from  the  book  "  Jesod  01am,"  by 
•Tizchak  Israeli,  11,  9,  where  Albatrudji  is  called  C^''j;nDn  K'-sn 
(The  Thunderer).  Levi  ben  Gerson  proves  first  the  impossibihty 
of  this  system  and  gives  then  his  own  opinions  about  the  world, 
which  he  based  on  the  observations  he  made  at  different  times. 
He  concluded  this  work  on  the  twenty-first  of  Kislew,  5089,  A. 
M.  (November  24,  1328).  He  revised  and  improved  it  afterward 
in  different  places,  and  added  then  gradually  the  newer  observa- 
tions which  he  made  until  the  year  1340.  This  work,  which 
ought  to  occupy  a  place  in  the  history  of  astronomy,  deserves 
to  be  examined  by  a  professional  man. 

Pico  de  la  Mirandola  quoted  it  many  times  in  his  "  Disputa- 
tiones  in  Astrologiam,"  and  expresses  himself  about  it  as  fol- 
lows (1,  ix.,  c.  8) :  "Leo  Hebraeus,  a  distinguished  man  and 
renowned  mathematician,  who  doubted  the  ancients,  invented  a 
new  instrument,  the  excellent  construction  of  which  we  can  see 
by  its  mathematical  accuracy." 

Wolf  (Bibliotheca  Hebr.  1,  p.  436)  took  this  Leo  Hebraeus 
for  the  son  of  Isaak  Abravanel.  The  part  (c.  4,  11)  wliich 
treats  of  the  instrument  mentioned  formed  formerly  a  wseparate 
work  and  was  translated  into  Latin  for  the  Pope  Clemens  VI., 
1342,  which  translation  (Parisian  National  Library  Manusc.  lat. 
No.  7293)  concludes  with  the  remark  :  "  Explicit  tractatus  in- 
strument! astronomiae  magistri  Leonis  Judaei  de  lialneolis 
habitatoris  Auraycae  (which  is  Orange).     Ad  summam  Ponti- 


—  52  — 

ficem  Dominum  Clementem  VI.  translatu&  de  Hebraeo  in  La- 
tiniim  anno  incarnationis  Chr.  et.  pontificatus  dicti  domini 
dementis  anno  prime." 

No.  25.  The  bold  views  of  Levi  ben  Gerson,  as  well  as  his 
peripatetic  interpretations  of  holy  Scriptural  passages  and 
religious  dogmas  were  a  subject  of  the  greatest  criticism  by  the 
orthodox  Rabbis. 

Isaac  Abravanel  bewails,  in  several  writings,  and  especially 
in  the  commentary  on  Joshua  (chap.  10),  the  errors  of  .Jewish 
philosophers,  who  presume  that  there  is  a  primitive  matter,  that 
they  put  the-  active  intellect  on  God's  place,  deny  the  divine 
providence  concerning  the  individual  man,  and  maintain  that  the 
immortality  of  the  soul  is  only  a  reunion  with  the  active  intel- 
lect (^yiDH  h:iV}.  He  complains  especially  of  Levi  ben  Gerson, 
who,  as  he  sa)'s,  did  not  consider  it  necessary  even  to  veil  his 
thoughts,  but  announced  them  with  the  greatest  clearness,  and 
expressed  his  ideas  about  the  first  matter,  pE'Xin  "iDin  the  soul, 
the  prophecy  and  wonders  in  such  a  way  and  manner  that  it 
would  be  a  sin  merely  to  hear  it,  much  more  to  believe  in  it. 
Before  Abravanel,  Isaac  ben  Shesheth  spoke  of  Levi  ben  Gerson 
in  the  same  strain  (1374),  but  with  more  respect. 

No.  26.  Moses  ben  Joshua,  with  the  surname  "  Master  Vidal," 
was  a  descendant  of  a  family  which  came  from  Narbonne,  but 
resided  in  Perpignan,  in  which  latter  city  young  Moses  applied 
himself  to  his  studies  under  the  direction  of  his  father  (com- 
pare his  commentary  on  the  "  Moreh  "  I.,  1  c.  50  and  63).  We 
can  not  state  exactly  the  time  of  his  birth,  but  we  may  presume 
that  it  was  probably  in  the  last  year  of  the  thirteenth  or  the  first 
years  of  the  fourteenth  century.  About  the  date  of  his  death 
there  is  a  doubtful  intimation  in  a  manuscript  of  the  Parisian 
National  Library  (fonds  de  I'Oratoire  No.  40),  whose  last  pages 
contain  a  small  treatise,  "  On  the  free  will,"  composed  by  our 


—  53  — 

Moses  to  refute  a  writing  entitled  mtJn  mJN  wherein  a  contem- 
poraneous man  of  letters,  whom  our  ^[oses  did  not  mention  by 
his  name,  defended  fatalism.  The  treatise  was  concluded  by 
Moses  at  Sorla,  Friday,  on  the  twelfth  of  Tebeth,  5122,  A.  ^I., 
December  10,  1361,  and  has  the  following  heading:  noxr^n 
."im'-DS  Din  D'trin  c^t^o^  "nam  "jn-ijn  nc*»  i^  m'naa  "  The  treatise 
on  the  free  will  was  composed  by  Rabbi  Moses  of  Narbonne 
about  three  months  l)efore  his  death."  By  this  it  appears  that 
the  author  died  in  the  year  1362,  that  the  words,  "about  three 
months,"  are  not  to  be  taken  literally,  because  we  know  that 
Moses  concluded  his  commentary  on  the  "  Moreh  "  on  the  1st 
of  Ijar,  April  26,  1362.  In  the  latter  work  (I.  iii.,  chap.  17)  he 
cites  his  small  treatise  on  fatalism,  on  account  of  which  some 
doubts  arise  about  the  authenticity  of  the  above  date. 

Be  it  as  it  may,  there  is  no  work  by  Moses  of  Narbonne  later 
than  1362.  But  he  must  have  been  at  that  time  in  a  very  ad- 
vanced age,  because  he  relates,  in  a  postscript  (see  his  commen- 
tary on  the  "  Moreh  "),  that  his  son  Joshua  urged  him  to  con- 
clude this  work  that  they  may  not  after  his  death  reproach  him 
for  having  neglected  the  greatest  philosopher  of  his  own  nation, 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  he  had  written  commentaries  on  the 
works  of  foreign  philosophers.  See,  concerning  Moses  of  Nar- 
bonne, Zunz  addit.  ad  catal.  cod.  Lips,  to  which  these  notices 
may  serve  as  a  supplement.  His  commentary  on  the  "  Lament- 
ations" of  Jeremiah  (addit.  p.  326)  was  one  of  his  former 
works.  It  is  in  the  Parisian  National  Library  (nnc.  f.  2S0).  lie 
speaks  therein  of  his  design  to  write  a  commentary  on  mL*'3X 
mpmn  "On  the  possibility  of  the  Union  with  the  Eternal"  (by 
Averroes). 

No.  27.  This  work  is  entitled,  in  the  Hebrew,  D'DlDiSsn  ni30 
"Intentio  philosophorum,"  and  was  one  of  his  fust  Htrrary 
works.     (Compare  Zunz  add.  p.  326,  col.  8,  et  Dclitzsch  cat.  p. 


—  54  — 

305.)  According  to  Casiri  (Bibl.  Arab.  hisp.  T.  I.,  p.  184),  it 
seems  that  there  is  in  Escurial  an  Arabic  commentary  by  our 
author  on  ''  Tehafot,"  by  Gazali,  but  it  appears  to  me  not  prob- 
able, and  rests  upon  an  error. 

No.  28.  Compare  Delitzschii  cat.  cod.  Heb.  Lips.  p.  308,  and 
Zunz  addit.  p.  325.  According  to  the  report  in  all  manuscripts, 
Moses  concluded  his  work,  "  Thamus,"  the  7th,  4104  (June 
19,  1344).  This  was,  however,  on  a  Saturday.  This  must, 
therefore,  be  undoubtedly  a  mistake. 

This  commentary  was  composed  in  the  midst  of  the  war 
troubles  which  took  place  (in  the  region  of  Roussillon)  between 
Peter  IV.,  King  of  Aragonia,  and  his  brother-in-law,  Jacob, 
King  of  Majorka,  as  the  author  himself  expresses  it  explicitly. 
(See  Delitzsch  I.  c.) 

No.  29.  The  physical  dissertations,  entitled,  (D^yn^n  D^ti'mn) 
form  a  collection  of  small  treatises  and  simple  remarks  of  Ibn 
Roshd,  on  many  different  questions  which  he  annexed  to  the 
physics  of  Aristotle.  One  part  of  them,  with  a  commentary  of 
Moses  Narbonne,  is  in  the  Parisian  National  Library,  manusc. 
8,  No.  118  fends  de  I'Orat.  Another  part  of  them,  under  the 
title,  SjSw  n^*yn  -inxn  "De  substantia  orbis,"  is  contained  in 
No.  96,  122,  2°  of  the  same  fonds. 

The  commentary  of  the  latter  collection,  which  concludes  the 
dissertations,  was  finished  on  the  5th  of  Adar,  5109  (Feb.  24, 
1349).  In  the  preface  of  the  commentary  on  the  first  collection 
(No.  118)  the  author  says,  who  retired  to  Cervera,  in  Catalonia, 
that  he  had  undertaken  this  work  at  the  requests  of  his  friends, 
the  literati  of  Perpignon,  in  order  to  preserve  his  literary  con- 
nection with  them. 

He  called,  later,  these  learned  men  DTixn  n3  (Society  of  breth- 
ren), and  in  the  preface  of  Chai  Ibn  Jocton  (see  the  following 
remark),  he  called  them  jN'^JDis  i'j?n  "^va  nDsnn  •'K'inD  mnnn  n33j 


-S5- 

"  Esteemed  inquirers  for  knowledge  in  the  Citj''  of  Perpignon," 
causes  us  to  presume  that  here  is  spoken  of  a  literar}^  society 
which  was  within  the  Jewish  congregation  in  the  City  of 
Perpignon.  He  mentions  also  the  great  tribulations  which 
befell  many  congregations  at  that  time,  the  devastation  of  the 
JcAvish  congregation  of  Cervera,  by  which  he  himself  lost  the 
greater  part  of  his  library. 

No.  30.  That  the  date  of  the  Leipzig  manviscii[)t  is  false  was 
already  proved  by  Zunz,  1  c.  The  most  manuscripts,  among 
which  are  two  of  the  Parisian  National  Library,  give  the  date  of 
the  conclusion  of  this  work  of  Cervera  the  evening  before  Pente- 
cost, the  fourth  of  Sivan,  for  the  5th  was  on  Saturday,  5109 
(May  22,  1349).  This  commentary  facilitates  the  comphre- 
hending  of  the  text  by  Ibn  Tofail,  and  gives  valuable  explana- 
tions of  the  doctrines  of  Arabian  philosophers. 

At  the  close,  the  commentator  gives  an  analysis  of  an  inter- 
esting work  by  Abu  Bekr  al  Cajeg,  or  Ibn  Badja,  entitled  :  njnjni 
nunon  ( "  The  manner  of  a  recluse "  )  which  work  he  dis- 
covered when,  on  account  of  the  war,  he  had  to  tlee  to  Valenzia* 
Since  the  original  w^ork  is  no  longer  extant,  the  analysis  is 
therefore  the  more  valuable.  The  statement  of  Zunz  (1  c.  p. 
326,  No.  6)  must  be  amended  according  to  this. 

No.  31.  The  author  says,  in  a  postscript,  that  he  commenced 
this  commentary  at  Toledo  and  concluded  it,  after  seven  years, 
in  Soria.  Several  circumstances,  among  which  was  especially 
the  plundering  which  he  suffered  on  the  second  day  of  Pente- 
cost, 5115,  A.  M.  (May  18,  1355),  forced  him  to  discontinue  his 
work. 

It  appears  from  a  passage,  1,  ii.  c.  47,  of  a  commentary,  that 
he  sojourned  since  5118  (1358)  at  Soria,  where  as  he  relates  he 
saw  a  Christian  woman  who  was  one  hundred  and  thirty  years 
of  age.     At  the  close  of  that  postscript  is  given  the  date  of  the 


-56- 

conclusion  of  his    commentary,  the    3d    Ijar,  5122   (April  26, 
1362),  when  he  intended  to  return  to  his  native  country. 

No.  32.  (Compare  Zunz  1  c.  p.  325,  col.  2,  No.  2).  This 
treatise,  entitled:  ''t:'Q3n  n10^E^•"  ("Perfection  of  the  Soul")  is 
in  manuscript  in  the  Parisian  National  Library  (fonds  de  I'orat. 
No.  118),  The  author  composed  this  treatise  for  his  son,  in 
order  to  replace  to  him,  on  this  subject,  the  works  of  Aristotle 
and  Ibn  Roshd.  As  a  preface,  he  repeats  the  first  book  of  Aris- 
totle's "  Treatise  on  the  soul,"  according  to  its  treatment  in  the 
middle  commentary  of  Ibn  Roshd. 

Moses' own  treatise  begins  with  the  second  part  and  is  divided 
into  five  books  :  on  the  soul  and  its  abilities,  the  material  or 
passive  intellect,  the  opinions  of  the  commentators  about  it, 
especially  the  ideas  of  Ibn  Roshd,  and,  finally,  on  the  active 
intellect  (Syisn  ^3D)  and  on  God,  the  first  cause  of  all  motion 
^_^J1E'^<"l^  nao). 

The  author  confesses  that  there  are  therein  many  repetitions 
taken  from  his  treatise  "  On  the  material  intellect."  (See 
above.) 

It  is  therefore  proved  that  he  composed  later  the  treatise  "On 
the  soul."  A  reference  which  is  made  in  the  treatise,  "  On  the 
material  intellect,"  to  his  book,  '•  On  the  soul,"  must  therefore 

be  a  later  addition  of  the  author. 

The  book,  "  On  the  soul,"  is  older  than  the  "  Commentary 
on  physical  dissertations,"  and  was  consequently  composed 
between  1344  and  1349. 

No.  33.  In  the  beginning  of  the  preface  of  his  dissertations, 
he  cites  this  commentary  with  the  words  :  Vl^^  n^J^'lSP  "IJCIT'S 
i^'i  p-?  •'ynta 

In  the  postscript  (see  commentary)  on  the  "  Moreh,"  he 
cites  also  his  works  or  commentaries  on  logic  and  metaphysics, 


—  57- 

and  in  the  commentary  itself  (I.  i.  e.  55),  see  nK'O  ^piD  (Capita 
Mosis),  probably  a  collection  of  philosophical  aphorisms. 

No.  34.  Compare,  however,  the  elaborate  dissertation  by 
M.  Schlesinger,  on  the  introduction  to  the  German  translation 
of  the  book  "  Ikkarim,"  Frankfort,  a.  M.  1844. 

No.  3o.  This  commentary  is  in  the  Parisian  National  Li- 
brary, fonds  de  I'orat.  No.  Ill,  entitled,  ns^on  'd^  C'n'D 

It  appears  from  the  preface  that  the  author  wrote  it  at  the 
request  of  one  of  his  friends,  and  took  Ibn  Roshd  as  a  guide, 
whom  he  considered  as  the  most  profound  commentator  of 
Aristotle,  and  protected  him  against  some  attacks  of  Levi  ben 
Gerson.  It  is  visible,  from  the  close  of  the  postscript,  that  he 
concluded  it  at  Huesca  (np*j'"'S1'\),  in  the  year  1440. 

No.  36.  At  the  close  of  the  manuscript  of  the  "  Intentio 
philosophorum,"  with  a  commentary  of  Moses  of  Narbonne 
(anc.  fonds  No.  358),  the  copyist,  Isaac  ben  Chabib,  reports 
that  he  concluded  it  on  the  7th  of  Tebeth,  5232  (December 
17,  1471),  at  Saragossa,  the  seat  of  learning  of  the  great 
scholar  and  philosopher,  teacher  and  Rabbi,  Abraham  ben 
Bibag. 

No.  37.  Joseph  ben  Shemtob  was  an  appointed  officer  at 
the  court  of  the  King  of  Castilia,  but  what  office  he  had  is 
unknown  to  us.  Pie  was  highly  respected  and  in  the  presence 
of  the  king  and  high  officers  he  disputed  sometimes  on  philo- 
sophical subjects.  He  relates  it  in  the  preface  of  his  commen- 
tary on  ethics.  He  was  the  most  fertile  Jewish  author  in  Spain, 
As  we  find  nowhere  (compare  Wolf,  De  Rossi)  an  exact  and 
complete  register  of  his  works,  I  will  enumerate  them  here  in  a 
probable  chronological  order,  which  shall  also  comprise  among 
them  such  which  are  perhaps  not  extant  any  more,  but  which 
are  quoted  by  the  author  himself  in  such  works  that  are  access- 
ible to  me. 


—  58  — 

1st.  A  small  treatise  "  On  domestic  affairs "  n"'3n  niDjn 
composed  when  he  was  in  his  youthful  days.  Quoted  below 
No.  5. 

2d.  Conmientary  on  the  D7^V  mrna  "  Examination  of  the 
world,"  by  Jedaja  Bedersi.     Quoted  Ibid. 

3d.  Commentary  on  a  work  of  his  father,  Shemtob,  entitled  : 
nn^D\-i  "iSD  "  Book  of  the  fundaments."     Quoted  Ibidem. 

4th.  Commentary  on  the  renowned  letter,  "  Be  not  like  your 
fathers,"  by  Profiat  Duran.  Quoted  further  No.  7.  This  com- 
mentary was,  according  to  De  Rossi,  published  in  Constanti- 
nople, and  is  also  in  manuscript  in  the  Parisian  National 
Library. 

5th.  Nlipn  py  or  "  Eye  (that  is  guide)  of  the  preacher."  A 
treatise  on  the  morality  and  on  the  art  to  preach  (quoted  in 
No.  7),  and  is  in  manuscript  (de  I'anc.  f  No.  158)  in  the 
Parisian  National  Library. 

6th.  Commentary  on  "Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,"  com- 
posed in  Medina  del  Campo,  in  the  year  1444.  See  De  Rossi, 
Catal.  cod.  177. 

7th.  D^"^-?S  ni33  "  Glory  of  God."  Treatise  on  the  highest 
good  and  the  aim  of  science  and  knowledge.  Published  at 
Ferrara,  1536 ;  composed  in  the  year  1442,  thirteen  years  before 
he  wrote  the  commentary  on  "  Ethics,"  as  he  himself  stated  in 
the  preface  of  the  latter,  on  the  occasion  of  the  relations  of 
Aristotle's  "  Ethics  "  to  the  moral  precepts  of  the  Mosaic  law. 

8th.  Translation  of  a  polemical  treatise  against  the  Chris- 
tians from  the  Spanish,  by  Rabbi  Chasdai  Crescas,  entitled : 
*7n3Jn  nos»    (Cited  No.  9.) 

9th.  Commentary  on  the  treatise  "  On  the  material  intellect, 
or  on  the  possibility  of  uniting  with  God  or  attachment  to 
God "  nrpmn  DI'J'SN*  by  Ibn  Roshd.  (Manuscript  of  the  Ora- 
torien  fonds  No.  136.) 


—  59  — 

10th.  |r-?y  nyn  "The  knowledge  of  the  Most  High,"  or 
refutation  of  a  treatise,  entitled:  VoJn  nip  ("The  secret  of 
retribution),"  on  fatalism,  by  the  Apostate  Abner,  and  the  views 
as  the}'  were  expressed  by  Rabbi  Chasdai.  (Cited  many  times 
in  No.  13.) 

11th.  Commentary  on  the  Aristotlean  treatise,  "  On  the  soul." 
12th.  Commentary  on  the  treatise,  "  On  the  Intelleetum  " 
72^r\  "lOSD  by  Alexander  Aphrodisi,  or  rather  on  an  extract  of 
it  composed  by  Ibn  Roshd  (cited  Ibid.  1,  6  and  10).  The 
manuscript  of  this  commentary,  which  was  concluded  on  the 
Feast  of  Booths,  5215  (Oct.,  1454),  at  Segovia,  was  purchased 
lately  by  the  Parisian  National  Library. 

13th.  nnjon  ^'D  "D  A  very  complete  commentary  "  On 
Ethics  to  Nikomachus."  This  most  important  work  of  our 
author  Avas  composed  by  him  during  the  time  of  100  days, 
and  was  concluded  on  the  first  of  Nissan,  5215  A.  M.  (March 
20,  1454),  There  are  in  the  Parisian  National  Library  two 
manuscripts  of  it.     IManusc.  fonds  No.  308;  Orat.  No.  121. 

No.  38.  The  manuscript,  No.  107  fonds  de  I'orat.,  contains 
three  works  by  Shemtob,  viz  :  ri'n'PDnn  nnon  laxcn  or  treatise 
"  On  the  final  cause  of  creation,"  a  treatise  "  On  the  primitive 
matter  and  its  relations  to  the  form,  according  to  the  views  of 
ancient  philosoj^hers,  and  especially  those  of  Aristotle  and  his 
interpreters,"  was  probably  composed  in  Segovia  in  14G1 ; 
furthermore,  nmn  nD  "i1X3  "  Explanation  of  speech,"  or  '-Capa- 
bility for  reason,"  or  commentary  on  a  part  of  the  treatise  "On 
the  soul,"  by  Aristotle  (I.  iii.  c.  4-7),  was  concluded  at  Al- 
mazan  on  the  first  of  Marcheshwan,  5241  A.  M.  (Sept.  28, 
1478). 

The  manuscript,  No.  329  anc.  f.,  contains  the  commentary  on 
the  "  Physics,"  by  Aristotle,  was  concluded  at  Almazan  on  the 


—  60  — 

second   of  Marcheshwan,    5241    A.    M.   (Oct.  6,  1480.)      The. 
commentary  on  the  "Moreh,"  by  Maimonides,  was  printed. 

No.  39.  Compare,  concerning  Elia  del  Medigo,  Geigor  in 
Melo  Chofnaim,  S.  xxiv.,  xxv.  and  xxii.  The  treatise  "On  the 
intellectum,"  is  without  any  title  in  the  Hebrew  manuscript  in 
the  Parisian  National  Library,  No.  328  anc.  f.  It  is  identical 
with  that  of  Joseph  del  Medigo,  with  the  words :  "  Profound 
question  on  the  unity  of  intellectus  "  ('JS"'SlM  SsK'),  Geiger  ib. 
heb.  text  p.  17.  Elia  concluded  this  treatise  about  the  end  of 
Shebat,  5242  (January,  1482). 

The  same  manuscript  contains  also  his  commentary  on  the 
treatise,  ^J?Jn  DVJJ3  ("  De  substantia  orbis  "),  concluded  at  Bas- 
sano  on  the  5th  of  Marcheshwan,  5246  A.  M.  (Oct.  14,  1485.) 
Both  works  were  composed  by  the  inducement  of  Job.  Pico  of 
Mirandola,  and  also  the  Latin  commentary  on  the  "  Physics," 
by  Aristotle.  It  is  among  the  Latin  manuscripts  of  the  Parisian 
National  Library,  No.  6508,  where  are  also  added  some  letters 
which  our  Elia  wrote  with  his  own  hand  to  Pico  de  Mirandola. 

The  "Bechinath  hadath,"  published  in  Basel,  1629,  was 
republished,  with  an  excellent  commentary,  by  J.  Reggio, 
Wien,  1833. 


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